A factor analytic method for investigating differences between groups of individual learning curves

In this method of analyzing learning data, entire learning curves are described quantitatively by single numbers which are used in a statistical test to determine whether two or more groups of learning curves are significantly different. The method has some logical advantages over prevailing methods in that it avoids the use of average learning curves and of arbitrary measures of slope and asymptote. Its disadvantage is computational. Since it involves the use of factor analytic procedures, it may be tedious to apply unless computation is carried out on a high-speed computer.This investigation was begun and carried out for the most part while the author was a Psychometric Fellow of Educational Testing Service at Princeton University. It was completed at University College, London, during successive tenures of post-doctoral fellowships from The National Institute of Mental Health, U.S.P.H.S., and The National Science Foundation. Data for the numerical example were processed by the high-speed computer facilities of the Western Data Processing Center, Los Angeles.     

A quantitative method for studying the testing supervision process

A quantitative method by Holloway for studying the supervision process in counseling training was adapted for use in psychological testing supervision. Ratings of 80 sessions indicated that most of the 25 potential interactions between the supervisor and trainee occurred in most of the sessions. The rate of occurrence was the lowest for the Emotional Awareness task (21%-24%). The author offers a speculation about how this result may be understood as involving the structured nature of testing. Results suggested that this model could be used as a tool for both practical and theoretical empirical evaluation of the supervision process during training in psychological testing.     

眼动轨迹匹配法：一种研究决策过程的新方法

眼动轨迹匹配法是近年来新兴的一种眼动数据分析方法, 该方法包括注视数据的预处理、兴趣区划分和编码、形成眼动轨迹字符串、计算相似性得分四个步骤。研究者采用眼动轨迹匹配法对决策过程理论及其影响因素进行的探索性研究, 证实了眼动轨迹匹配法在决策领域的可行性、精确性和高价值性。未来的研究应进一步利用眼动轨迹匹配法加强对各种决策理论及其影响因素的研究, 以揭示决策的认知过程, 构建更加完善的决策理论模型。     

The microgenetic method. A direct means for studying cognitive development

Progress in understanding cognitive developmental change mechanisms requires methods that yield detailed data about particular changes. The microgenetic method is an approach that can yield such data. It involves (a) observations of individual children throughout the period of the change, (b) a high density of observations relative to the rate of change within that period, and (c) intensive trial-by-trial analyses intended to infer the processes that gave rise to the change. This approach can illuminate both qualitative and quantitative aspects of change, indicate the conditions under which changes occur, and yield otherwise unobtainable information about short-lived transition strategies. The cost in time and effort of such studies is often high, but the value of the information about change can more than justify the cost.     

Explaining sex differences in infants' preferences for groups

Social organization of a species influences myriad facets of individuals’ behavior. Much research indicates that human social organization consists of males in large groups and females in smaller groups or interacting with individuals. This study analyzed the initial factors that produce greater preferences for groups by human male versus female infants. To this end, using a looking preference paradigm, fifty-nine 6–8-month-old infants viewed individual versus group images of actual children. On the basis of several controls, results demonstrated that male more than female infants are attracted to the complex level of stimulation provided by groups. Discussion centers on further identifying male versus female patterns of group interaction from a perceptual and cognitive standpoint.     

In support of extreme groups design for studying masculinity-femininity and intelligence

Humphreys (this issue) reanalyzed the data of Welsh and Baucom (1977) and stated that their conclusions were unsupportable. Humphreys's criticisms are inappropriate since his findings are based upon a measure of masculinity-femininity (M-F) which is different from the previous approach and based upon a sample which is somewhat different. Thus he addresses issues which are inconsistent with Welsh and Baucom's focus. Finally, Humphreys's insistence on correlational analysis to the exclusion of extreme groups design is viewed as inappropriately limiting.     

基于伪装原理研究无意识视觉运动加工的方法

研究提出一种新的连续闪烁抑制(CFS)范式, 利用透明度混合(alpha blending)原理, 使目标刺激的颜色与相应位置的掩蔽刺激的颜色时刻保持一致。研究随机招募了8名被试, 向其优势眼呈现Mondrian图像序列, 非优势眼呈现固定速率运动的多个正方形。结果表明目标为多运动点动态刺激时, 该范式依然具备掩蔽作用, 且当目标刺激与相应位置的掩蔽刺激的颜色完全一致时, 掩蔽效果最好, 证明这种新范式比传统CFS范式对动态刺激的掩蔽作用更好。相比以往修改CFS掩蔽刺激的思路, 该范式为研究无意识视觉运动加工提供了新方法, 且适用性更广。     

A method for studying visually guided perception and learning in newborn macaques

A maintenance technique was developed in which neonatal monkeys obtain all liquid food by placing their heads in a face mask mounted on their cage wall. Complete self-feeding required only 3-6 days for animals started at birth. Once under a self-feeding Schedule, operant responses were shaped to study visual perception, visually guided motor performance, and discrimination learning at ages much younger than those allowed by most alternative methods. Dark rearing, with the only source of visual input being through the face mask eyeholes, allowed the E to control completely the neonate’s visual experiences and its opportunities for visual-motor responding. The method has proven useful in rhesus monkey newborns for studying adaptation to prismatic displacement at 30 days of age, and to performance on CRF, FI, and FR reinforcement schedules.     

A method for studying stimulus class dynamics using budgerigars and vocal responding

We describe a methodology for examining stimulus class dynamics in budgerigars. Three budgerigars served as subjects. Four call types were trained as operant responses to four discriminative stimuli. The birds were over‐trained in this discrimination, and then run through two conditions. In Condition 1 the birds were trained to peck two of the four stimuli when these two stimuli appeared in two novel locations, while continuing to vocalize to all four stimuli when they occurred in the original training location. An analysis of vocal errors showed that the two stimuli assigned to the peck response were more likely to become confused with one another. In Condition 2 the birds experienced symbolic matching‐to‐sample training. Vocal discrimination trials were run concurrently with this training. The observed vocal‐response errors suggest that during a matching‐to‐sample task, sample stimuli became temporarily confused with one another. The results, although primarily intended to illustrate the utility of our method, support the hypothesis that stimuli assigned a common response become more similar, or equivalent, to one another.     

Perceived need for resources: Some differences among groups

Perceived need for interpersonal resources (status, love, services, goods, money and information) was examined in two studies. In the first study drug addicts, prostitutes, alcoholics and motorcycle racers were compared with a control group drawn from the general population. In the second investigation outpatients with medical complaints, alcoholic impatients and drug addict outpatients all treated at a VA hospital were compared with a control group of males drawn from the general population. After patialling out the effects of age and education, both studies showed significant differences among the groups in their expressed need for status, love, services and information. Conversely, no major differences were found in the need for goods and money. The prostitutes in the first study and the addicts of both studies showed the highest need level. The relevance of these findings to the treatment and prevention of social problems is discussed.     

Sex differences in the emergence of leadership during competitions within and between groups

This experiment investigated potential gender biases in the emergence of leadership in groups. Teams played a public-goods game under conditions of intra- or intergroup competition. We predicted and found a strong preference for female leaders during intragroup competition and male leaders during intergroup competition. Furthermore, during intragroup competition, a female leader was more instrumental than a male leader in raising group investments, but this pattern was reversed during intergroup competition. These findings suggest that particular group threats elicit specific gender-biased leader prototypes. We speculate about the evolutionary and cultural origins of these sex differences in the emergence of leadership.