The Relationship Between Racism and Racial Identity for White Americans: A Profile Analysis

This investigation examined how racial identity profiles, using J. E. Helms's (1996) profile scoring procedure, were related to racist attitudes. One finding showed that participants with an undifferentiated or flat profile scored significantly higher in racist attitudes than participants with other racial identity profiles. Implications for counseling practice and research are discussed. Esta investigación examina cómo los perfiles de identidad racial se relacionan con las actitudes racistas, utilizando el procedimiento de evaluar perfiles de J. E. Helms (1996). Un resultado encontró que los participantes con un perfil piano o no‐diferenciado obtuvieron mejores resultados en las actitudes raciales que los participantes con otros perfiles de identidad racial. Se evalúan también las consecuencias para la práctica de consejería y las investigaciones.     

The Relationship Between Racism and Racial ldentity Among White Americans: An Exploratory Investigation

This research explored the relationship between White racial identity attitudes and racism. Participants were 100 White students from a large midwestern university who were asked to complete the New Racism Scale and the White Racial Identity Inventory. Multiple regression analyses found that White racial identity attitudes were predictive of racism. The study, however, also found gender differences in White racial identity. Results of the study are discussed in terms of implications for developing racial awareness on college campuses.     

The Relationship Between Racial Identity Status Attitudes and Acculturation Among Chinese and Korean Americans: A Criterion Profile Analysis

This study tested the relationship between racial identity and acculturation among 223 Asian Americans self‐identifying as Chinese American or Korean American. Findings showed within‐group variations among the study participants with regard to their racial identity status attitudes and acculturation. Using criterion profile analysis, the authors found 2 distinctive criterion profiles of racial identity status attitudes that significantly related to higher levels of acculturation among Chinese American and Korean American participants. Implications for multicultural counseling, racial identity, and acculturation research are discussed. Este estudio puso a prueba la relación entre identidad racial y aculturación entre 223 individuos asiático‐americanos que se identifican a sí mismos como chino‐americanos o coreano‐americanos. Los resultados mostraron variaciones dentro del miso grupo entre los participantes del estudio en cuanto a su aculturación y sus actitudes hacia el estatus de su identidad racial. Usando un análisis de perfil de criterio, los autores encontraron 2 perfiles de criterio distintivos para las actitudes hacia el estatus de identidad racial que estaban relacionados significativamente con niveles más altos de aculturación entre los participantes chino‐americanos y coreano‐americanos. Se discuten las implicaciones para investigaciones sobre consejería multicultural, identidad racial y aculturación.     

Exploring the Relationships Between Racial/Cultural Identity and Ego Identity Among African Americans and Mexican Americans

Relationships between collective identity and ego identity were examined among 299 African American and Mexican American university students. Participants completed scales measuring racial or cultural identity and ego identity. Regression analyses indicated that ego identity was significantly related to racial identity for African Americans and cultural identity for Mexican Americans.     

Racism and White Counselor Training: Influence of White Racial Identity Theory and Research

White counselors currently and in the future are projected to constitute the majority of counseling practitioners. In a racist and culturally diverse society, White counseling students need to learn to effectively counsel racially diverse clients. In this article, the inclusion of awareness, knowledge, and skills around racism and racial identity development is discussed as critical to counselor training programs with White counseling students. Intentional and strategic efforts to assist White counseling students recognize their personal racial identity and privileges of racism are presented as tools to assist the counseling profession to reduce the perpetuation of racist attitudes and racism.     

White Racism and Suboptimal Psychological Functioning Among White Americans: Implications for Counseling and Prejudice Prevention

This study examined the causal relationships between anxiety, racism, and self‐esteem in a sample of White graduate and undergraduate students (N = 169). The results indicated that level of anxiety had a direct effect on anti‐Black attitudes, which, in turn, had a direct effect on self‐esteem. Implications for counseling interventions aimed at preventing prejudice among Whites are discussed. Este estudio examinó las relaciones causales entre la ansiedad, el racismo, y el auto‐estima en un grupo de estudiantes graduados y estudiantes de bachillerato Blancos (N = 169). Los resultados indicaron que el nivel de ansiedad tuvo un efecto directo en las actitudes anti‐Negras, que en torno tuvo un efecto directo en el auto‐estima. Las implicaciones para las intervenciones de consejería dirigidas a prevenir el prejuicio entre los Blancos son discutidas.     

The Relationship Between African American Enculturation and Racial Identity

This study investigated how predictive the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; B. J. Vandiver, W. E. Cross, F. C. Worrell, & P. Fhagen‐Smith, 2002), a measure of Black racial identity, was of African American cultural practices, beliefs, and attitudes (i.e., enculturation) as measured by the African American Acculturation scale‐33 (H. Landrine & E. Klonoff, 1995). Findings revealed that all but 1 of the CRIS subscales significantly predicted enculturation. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Este estudio investigó hasta qué punto la Escala Cross de Identidad Racial (CRIS, por sus siglas en inglés; B. J. Vandiver, W. E. Cross, F. C. Worrell, & P. Fhagen‐Smith, 2002), una medida de la identidad racial Negra, podría predecir prácticas culturales, creencias y actitudes Afroamericanas (p. ej, la endoculturación) medidas por la Escala de Aculturación Afroamericana‐33 (H. Landrine & E. Klonoff, 1995). Los hallazgos revelaron que todas, a excepción de una, de las subescalas CRIS predijeron la endoculturación de una manera significativa. Se discuten implicaciones teóricas y prácticas.     

The Relationship Between Racial Identity Cluster Profiles and Psychological Distress Among African American College Students

One hundred eighty‐two African American college students completed the Racial Identity Attitudes Scale. Results from the multivariate categorization scheme revealed 5 types of empirically derived racial identity attitude profiles: “dissonance internalization” (34%), “committed internalization” (30%), “cngaged internalization” (21%), “undifferentiated racial identity” (8%), and “dormant racial identity” (7%). The profiles significantly differed on Brief Symptom Inventory subscale scores.     

Using Racial Identity Theory to Explore Racial Mistrust and Interracial Contact Among Asian Americans

The purpose of this study was to examine the use of racial identity attitudes as predictors of racial mistrust (perceived interpersonal racism) of African Americans and other racial contact variables among Asian Americans. A packet consisting of the Visible Racial/Ethnic Group Members (VREG) Identity Attitudes Scale, Cultural Mistrust Inventory, Marlow‐Crowne Social Desirability Scale, Racial Contact Scale, and a demographic data sheet was administered to 160 participants. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that racial identity attitudes significantly predicted racial mistrust, overall group impression, 4 racial stereotypes, and 2 quality of racial contact variables in ways consistent with racial identity theory. Implications of the findings for Asian American psychology, counseling, and race relations research are discussed.     

The Relationship Between Racial and Ethnic Identity in Black Adolescents: The Cross Racial Identity Scale and the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure

Ethnic identity and racial identity are related terms that are often used interchangeably, although the theoretical models differ. In this study, we examined the relationship between ethnic identity attitudes operationalized by Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992) scores and racial identity attitudes operationalized by Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; Vandiver et al., 2000) scores in a sample of 143 adolescents. Bivariate analyses indicated that scores on the MEIM's Ethnic Identity subscale had modest positive correlations with Afrocentricity scores of the CRIS and negative correlations with Assimilation and Self-Hatred scores. Other Group Orientation scores from the MEIM were positively related to Multicultural scores on the CRIS and negatively related to Anti-White scores. A canonical correlation yielded 2 interpretable functions labeled Black Racial/Ethnic Identification and Grounded Multiculturalism. Black Racial/Ethnic Identification was characterized by high proethnic and pro-racial scores and low scores on non-ethnic/racial subscales, and Grounded Multiculturalism was characterized by high pro-ethnic scores as well as high pro-other scores.     

The Relationship Between Racial Identity Development and Multicultural Counseling Competency: A Second Look

The relationship between racial identity development and multicultural counseling competency across a 2‐year period of time was examined in this study. Significant increases were found in multicultural counseling competency but not in their levels of racial identity development across time. Possible explanations for and limitations of this research are discussed. La relación entre el desarrollo de la identidad racial y la competencia para consejería multicultural a través de un período de dos años se examina en esta investigación. Se encuentran aumentos significantes en la competencia para consejería multicultural, pero no en el nivel de desarrollo de identidad racial a través del tiempo. Se examinan las posibles explicaciones y las limitaciones de esta investigación también.     

The Relationship Between Racial Identity Development and Multicultural Counseling Competency

Eighty‐seven incoming doctoral students (65 European American and 22 people of color) completed a battery of tests (e.g., a multicultural counseling competency measure). More advanced levels of racial identity development were generally correlated with higher levels of multicultural counseling competency, greater amounts of prior multicultural training, and higher self‐reported ratings of overall counseling competency and multicultural counseling competency.     

Consumer Racial Discrimination in Tipping: A Replication and Extension

This study examined the effects of server race, customer race, and their interaction on restaurant tips while statistically controlling for customers' perceptions of service quality and other variables. The findings indicate that consumers of both races discriminated against Black service providers by tipping them less than White service providers. Furthermore, this server race effect on tipping was moderated by perceived service quality and dining party size. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. Particularly noteworthy is the possibility that the server race effect on tipping represents an adverse impact against Black servers that makes the use of tipping to compensate employees a violation of employment discrimination law in the United States.     

Mental Health Practitioners: The Relationship Between White Racial Identity Attitudes and Self‐Reported Multicultural Counseling Competencies

This study documents the relationship between White racial identity development and multicultural counseling competency (MCC) as reported by mental health practitioners. Initial results were generally consistent with J. E. Helms's (1990) construction of White racial identity attitude development theory. More sophisticated statuses of White racial identity development generally correlated with higher levels of perceived MCC. Overall, there was a significant difference in MCC reported between men and women. Among counselors, conflicting relationships were observed between some racial identity statuses and multicultural competencies (skills, relationship).     

Gay Identity Issues Among Black Americans: Racism,Homophobia, and the Need for Validation

There is little available literature on gay and lesbian identity among Black Americans. This exploratory study involved interviewing a total of six Black-American gay men and lesbian women regarding gay identity development issues. Data pertaining to the interviewees' experiences of gay identity development were obtained through a questionnaire of six open-ended questions and an interview with each participant lasting 1 to 2 hours. This article presents some of the significant challenges faced by those who were interviewed regarding their sense of self-acceptance, both as Blacks in the predominantly White gay and lesbian community and as gay men and lesbian women in the predominantly heterosexual Black community. The implications of these issues for future research and counseling intervention are discussed. In this article the term gay identity is generally used in reference to both men and women. When women are being discussed exclusively, however, the term lesbian identity is used.     

The Relationship Between Spirituality and Eysenck's Personality Dimensions: A Replication Among English Adults

A serial recall task was used to compare performance of 15 normal and 15 learning disabled elementary school children matched on CA, IQ, and sex with two and three dimensional representations of nonverbal eight-point shapes. Two a priori assumptions were not supported: (a) no differences in recall were found between groups and (b) no differences in recall were found for either group using two or three dimensional stimuli. Three imensional stimuli did facilitate visual rehearsal at the primacy position for both groups. Learning disabled children's performance was consistent with the mediation deficiency hypothesis found with normal children.     

Racial Identity and Gender as Moderators of the Relationship Between Body Image and Self-esteem for African Americans

This study explored whether multiple dimensions of racial identity and gender moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem for African American men and women (N?=?425) using an intersectional approach. Centrality (strength of identification with racial group), private regard (positive feelings about racial group), public regard (positive feelings others have about racial group), and gender moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem for a sample of men (n?=?109) and women (n?=?316) college students from three regions of the United States. Body dissatisfaction was related to lower self-esteem only for those African Americans for whom race was less central to their identities. High private regard and low body dissatisfaction were synergistically associated with higher self-esteem. Similarly, low public regard and high body dissatisfaction were synergistically related to lower self-esteem. There was a positive main effect for assimilation ideology (emphasis on similarities between African Americans and Western society) on self-esteem; however it was not a significant moderator. The relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem was stronger for women than for men. This study extends our knowledge of the ways in which racial attitudes and gender shape how African Americans experience their bodies and are related to self-esteem.     

Assessing White Racial Identity: The White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS)

Prior to the ready availability of Helms and Carter's (1990) White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-W), Claney and Parker (1989) developed the White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS). Using this device they reported finding a curvilinear relationship between the stage of racial identity or consciousness of Whites and their comfort with African American persons. Recently, the WRCDS seems to be gaining acceptance by scholars working in the area of White racial identity. Data, however, are presented suggesting that the WRCDS lacks adequate reliability and concurrent validity and that the findings and future use of the instrument should be questioned.     

White Racial Identity and White Racial Consciousness: Similarities,Differences, and Recommendations

To dispel apparent confusion, White racial identity and White racial consciousness are described and contrasted in terms of theoretical conceptualization and measures used. It is recommended that priority be given to the validation of existing or new measurement instruments to provide a sound basis for future findings. Para disipar la confusión aparente, la identidad racial Bianca, y el conocimiento racial Blanco, se describen y son contrastados en términos de sus conceptos teóricos y las medidas empleadas. Se recomienda dar prioridad a la validación de instrumentos existentes o nuevos para proporcionar una base sólida para los deseubrimientos futuros.