Monitoring and Performance: A Comparison of Computer and Supervisor Monitoring1

This research addresses how computer monitoring affects the way individual workers perform on their jobs. The study tests the effects of a supervisor's physical versus electronic presence on individual worker performance. Forty-two women were hired to perform a simple data entry task. The women worked in one of three conditions: (a) alone, (b) in the physical presence of the supervisor who monitored their work, or (c) computer-monitored (electronic presence) by the data entry system without the physical presence of the supervisor. It was hypothesized that social facilitation effects would result from either the physical or electronic presence conditions. Electronic presence does seem to result in social facilitation, though the mean differences are not statistically significant. The results for physical presence are mixed. Profile analysis indicates that there are significant differences in the patterns of performance. When subjects work alone or with electronic presence, performance follows a steady pattern. When subjects work with physical presence, performance is somewhat lower than in the alone condition, except when the supervisor is actively monitoring, then individual performance is significantly increased. There are no satisfaction differences between the three conditions. The results of this research suggest that “Big Brother” is not lurking inside every computer-monitoring system.     

“激将法”会激发还是打击员工?感知能力不被领导信任的“双刃剑”效应

感知能力不被领导信任是信任研究的重要内容。已有研究普遍认为感知不被领导信任会对员工的自我产生不利影响。相反, 传统领导方式“激将法”则认为领导的不信任可以刺激员工展现更好的自我。为了解释上述矛盾, 本研究基于自我评价理论和心理逆反理论, 采用实验研究和多源多时间点问卷调查研究方法, 探讨了感知能力不被领导信任对员工自我的“双刃剑”效应及边界条件。研究结果表明, 当员工感知领导能力较强时, 感知能力不被领导信任会通过降低员工的工作效能感削弱员工的工作努力和绩效表现; 当员工感知领导能力较弱时, 感知能力不被领导信任会通过增强员工证明自我能力动机提升员工的工作努力和绩效表现。     

Computer Monitoring of Work Performance: Extending the Social Facilitation Framework to Electronic Presence1

This study demonstrated the utility of employing a social facilitation framework to the study of computer monitoring of work performance. The physical presence of an observer watching a subject work on a complex task (as a supervisor might “look over an employee's shoulder“) was contrasted with four conditions involving the electronic presence of computer-based work monitoring (as a supervisor might monitor an employee's work remotely via computer) and a control condition of subjects working alone without any monitoring of their work. Task performance was severely impaired for participants who were monitored electronically as well as for those who were monitored “in person.” Two interventions, providing participants with a sense of control over their work conditions and monitoring participants as a group rather than as individuals, each reduced the negative impact of monitoring on task performance by almost 40%. Results also indicated that individuals with an external locus of control (who believe reinforcements received are primarily determined by factors outside of themselves, e. g., other people) experience greater anxiety than those with an internal locus of control under monitoring conditions. Implications of these findings for social facilitation and the rapidly expanding use of computer-based work monitoring are discussed.     

HOW SUPERVISORS INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE: A MULTILEVEL STUDY OF COACHING AND GROUP MANAGEMENT IN TECHNOLOGY-MEDIATED SERVICES

This multilevel study examines the role of supervisors in improving employee performance through the use of coaching and group management practices. It examines the individual and synergistic effects of these management practices. The research subjects are call center agents in highly standardized jobs, and the organizational context is one in which calls, or task assignments, are randomly distributed via automated technology, providing a quasi-experimental approach in a real-world context. Results show that the amount of coaching that an employee received each month predicted objective performance improvements over time. Moreover, workers exhibited higher performance where their supervisor emphasized group assignments and group incentives and where technology was more automated. Finally, the positive relationship between coaching and performance was stronger where supervisors made greater use of group incentives, where technology was less automated, and where technological changes were less frequent. Implications and potential limitations of the present study are discussed.     

授权风险考量与授权行为：领导－成员交换和集权度的作用

授权能够有效提升员工绩效和组织利益, 但中国企业管理者不授权现象比比皆是。本研究从授权风险的角度探讨管理者不愿授权的原因, 并检验领导－成员交换(LMX)和组织集权度的调节作用。通过17家企业收集到的157位管理者与471位下属的配对资料, HLM分析结果显示：任务绩效、组织利益风险考量与管理者授权行为负相关, 且这种负向关系还受到LMX的强化; 此外, 组织集权度在权力地位、组织利益风险考量与授权行为的负向关系中具有显著的调节作用。     

Effects of Supervisor Style and Empathy on Counselor Perceptions in Simulated Counseling

Effects of supervisor style (techniques type and counseling type) and supervisor empathy upon counselor perceptions in a supervision analogue were examined. Three groups of 14 students heard two sets of recorded client statements and responded as counselors. The two experimental (E) groups had 20-minute conferences with supervisors between the first and second sets. Controls (C) received no supervision. Counselor perceptions were measured by questionnaire responses. Although subjects supervised by an emphasis on techniques rated themselves less relaxed and less confident about the meaning of empathy than those with an emphasis on counseling, their performance on the criterion of empathy was higher. Both E groups perceived themselves as higher than C's in amount learned, but they were no higher on the performance measure. No differences were found for reactions to supervision (items given E's only) or reactions to participation in the experiment. Empathy of supervisors did not appreciably affect counselor perceptions.     

Are Telecommuters Remotely Good Citizens? Unpacking Telecommuting's Effects on Performance Via I‐Deals and Job Resources

Despite their widespread adoption, concerns remain that virtual work arrangements can harm employee job performance and citizenship behavior. Does telecommuting really hamper these critical dimensions of employee effectiveness? To answer this question, we develop a theoretical framework linking telecommuting to task and contextual performance via a dual set of mechanisms—reflecting proposed effects of i‐deals and job resources. Further, we propose that the meaning of and outcomes from these paths depend on the social context surrounding telecommuting. We test the framework with field data from 323 employees and 143 matched supervisors across a variety of organizations. As predicted, we find that telecommuting is positively associated with task and contextual performance, directly and indirectly via perceived autonomy. These beneficial effects are contingent upon two aspects of the social context: leader‐member exchange and signals of its normative appropriateness among coworkers and one's supervisor.     

The effects of sex differences and evaluation on task performance and aspiration

An investigation was conducted of how evaluation differentially affects the performance and aspiration for future performance of 118 high school boys and girls. Subjects were selected to fit into either a superior or average intelligence group. In the high evaluation condition, subjects were instructed that their intelligence was being evaluated in anagram and visual-motor tasks they performed, while those in the low evaluation condition were instructed that the two tasks were being correlated. It was hypothesized that on a highly evaluated task, girls, when compared to boys, would show greater performance debilitation and would have lower aspirations for future performance. Although sex differences were found in performance debilitation and aspiration for future performance, they were not all in the predicted directions. Girls were equally debilitated in anagram performance under both evaluation conditions, while boys were debilitated in anagram performance only under high evaluation. When both boys and girls demonstrated a performance debilitation on the anagram task, their performance declined approximately 10%. No sex differences in performance were found on the visual-motor task. On both tasks, girls' aspirations were significantly affected by evaluation condition. The girls averaged 89% choosing the more difficult task in the low evaluation condition. Evaluation condition had no significant effect on aspiration for boys on either task. Intelligence showed no significant relationships.     

Supported Supervisors Are More Supportive,but Why? A Multilevel Study of Mechanisms and Outcomes

This study examines organizational support theory as it extends to supervisor support by (1) testing two explanations for the relationship between supervisors’ perceived organizational support and their supportive supervision and (2) examining perceived supervisor support in relation to subordinate performance and commitment. Multisource survey data from a correctional facility, with a matched sample of 51 supervisors and 283 subordinates, were collected. Multilevel structural equation modeling was used for analysis. Supervisors were more supportive when they felt supportive treatment was preferred by the organization and less supportive when they felt obligated to help the organization. Perceived supervisor support was associated with subordinate performance and commitment at the subordinate level (i.e., among employees reporting to the same supervisor) but not at the supervisor level (i.e., across supervisor-follower groups). Employees who feel supported by their supervisor perform better and are more committed to their employer. To encourage supervisor support, organizations should both model support to supervisors and communicate the expectation for supervisor support. Supervisors who feel obligated to reciprocate to a supportive organization may be less inclined to support their subordinates. This study examines the prevailing, yet untested, mechanism (felt obligation) used to explain the relationship between supervisor’s perceptions of organizational support and their supportive supervision, as well as an alternative explanation based on social information processing. The study provides a nuanced multilevel analysis of perceived supervisor support as related to subordinate outcomes and extends previous models by including subordinate withdrawal and commitment.     

Influence of individual differences in temporal sensitivity on timing performance

This research was designed to examine the consistency of individual differences in timing. Subjects were tested initially on a temporal-signal-detection task. In a series of trials, subjects judged whether a stimulus figure was displayed for either 12 s or greater than 12 s. Task performance was used to classify the subjects into groups with high or low temporal sensitivity (d'). Later, the subjects were tested on two classic time-judgment tasks. In a temporal-interference task, subjects reproduced intervals of 8-16 s during which they had rehearsed 0, 3, or 7 digits. Absolute error in time judgments increased linearly as a function of task demands. However, subjects with low temporal sensitivity made more error under all conditions compared with those with high sensitivity. In an isochronous-tapping task, subjects produced a series of 2-s and 5-s intervals. The low-temporal-sensitivity group produced more variable and inaccurate responses than the high-sensitivity group. The results demonstrate cross-situational consistency in timing performance across different tasks, time-judgment methods, and stimulus durations.     

A sustained analysis of the behaviors of schooling

Educationally significant behaviors of students, teachers, and supervisors were directly assessed daily for a fiscal year in a residential school in which the results of behavior analysis research are applied to all levels of schooling. The variables assessed included those found to be concomitantly related to effective schooling as determined by the educational research literature, and functionally related to effective teaching as determined by the literature of behavior analysis. Weekly summaries of the following variables were analyzed for each of two daily shifts of teachers and supervisors: (a) number of trials presented and correct number of trials, (b) number of instructional sessions conducted, (c) number of learning objectives achieved, (d) percentage correct in each of three curricular areas, (e) weekly teacher observation scores, and (f) the total and rate per hour of supervisors' task accomplishments. There were strong positive correlations between: (a) instructional sessions and learning objectives, (b) teachers use of behavioral techniques in weekly observations by supervisors and students' achievement, (c) number of supervisor tasks completed and number of instructional sessions conducted by teachers, (d) number of teacher observations by supervisors and teachers' performance during observations, and (e) number of student objectives attained and number of tasks completed by supervisors. The assessment is the most comprehensive and sustained analysis of the daily behaviors of schooling. The relationships found between students and teacher behaviors replicate the effects of numerous experiments but do so in a total school setting. The relationships found between supervisor and student behavior have not been demonstrated in prior research. There is a need for similar school wide assessments in other types of schools to determine the generality of the relationships obtained in the present article.     

Perception and acceptance of evaluations by supervisors and peers

A survey of 200 employed graduate and undergraduate business students investigated differences in individuals’ acceptance and perceptions about peer evaluation vs. supervisor evaluation. Results showed that, compared to peer evaluations, acceptance of supervisor evaluations is higher, supervisor evaluations are perceived as more accurate and more trusted, supervisors are seen as having more qualifications to evaluate performance and more opportunities to observe performance, and suffer less from friendship bias.     

Same‐gender supervisors protect women's leadership aspirations after negative performance feedback

Two studies examined how the gender of a workplace supervisor can affect a woman's response to performance evaluations and also her professional advancement aspirations. In Study 1, employed women reviewed a performance evaluation in which feedback was manipulated to reflect one of two stereotypes of women (high in warmth or low in competence). Findings showed that participants were more likely to attribute negative (i.e., low competence) feedback from men supervisors to gender biases than the same feedback from women supervisors. There was no effect of supervisor gender when the feedback was positive (i.e., high warmth) or neutral. In Study 2, negative feedback from men supervisors, regardless of evaluative dimension (competence or warmth) resulted in women reporting decreased professional aspirations. This relationship was mediated by women's attribution of supervisor feedback to gender biases. Together, these findings suggest that same‐gender supervisors can potentially buffer women's long term professional aspirations after a discouraging performance review.     

Development: Compared to what?: Contrast effects in age-comparative paradigms

Recent controversies about judgment competence of preschool and adolescent children are considered as being a possible product of contrast effects. That is, perceived abilities of children of a given age group may depend on the ages of the other subjects in the experiment. An experiment was done to test the possibility of contrast effects in age-comparative experiments. One group of subjects read about three experimental tasks in which 6-year-old children performed better than 4-year-olds. A second group read about 6-year-olds performing worse than 8-year-olds on the same tasks. Performance levels of 6-year-olds were the same on the two forms. For each task subjects rated the competence of each of the two age groups on the task and predicted the performance of the two groups on a related task. Undergraduate subjects' competence ratings and predictions were higher for 6-year-olds when compared to 4-year-olds than when compared to 8-year-olds. Psychology graduate students showed the same contrast effect for predictions but not for competence ratings. The results are discussed in terms of potential biases in age-comparative methods in developmental psychology.     

Perception and acceptance of evaluations by supervisors and peers

A survey of 200 employed graduate and undergraduate business students investigated differences in individuals’ acceptance and perceptions about peer evaluation vs. supervisor evaluation. Results showed that, compared to peer evaluations, acceptance of supervisor evaluations is higher, supervisor evaluations are perceived as more accurate and more trusted, supervisors are seen as having more qualifications to evaluate performance and more opportunities to observe performance, and suffer less from friendship bias.     

主管认知信任和情感信任对员工行为及绩效的影响

采用问卷调查法,检验主管认知信任与情感信任对员工行为及绩效影响的双路径模型。通过结构方程模型分析563份上下级配对数据,结果显示：主管认知信任通过注意聚焦的完全中介作用正向影响员工的任务绩效和组织公民行为。主管情感信任则通过情感承诺的部分中介作用正向影响员工的任务绩效和组织公民行为,即一方面直接影响员工的任务绩效和个体指向公民行为,另一方面通过情感承诺间接影响员工的任务绩效和组织公民行为。并且,主管情感信任对员工行为和绩效的影响作用要大于认知信任的作     

The processing of deviant information in prediction and evaluation

Analyses of information integration and of retention were used to examine the processing of deviant information in prediction and evaluation tasks. Sets of test scores were presented serially for a group of hypothetical students, and subjects were asked to evaluate the performance of each student or predict each student’s performance on a comprehensive final exam. An averaging model with greater weight for the more recent scores than for the earlier scores was supported for both types of task, but the recency was more pronounced in the prediction task. Weighting of deviant scores differed in the prediction and evaluation tasks. Significant discounting (underweighting) of deviant scores was obtained only in the prediction task, The ability to recall deviant scores on uncued tests of retention was higher in the prediction task than in the evaluation task. Prediction of future performance based on inconsistent measures of past performance thus appears to be an active process involving the discovery and discounting of unrepresentative information.     

When supervisors feel supported: relationships with subordinates' perceived supervisor support, perceived organizational support, and performance

The authors surveyed full-time retail employees and their supervisors to investigate relationships of supervisors' perceived organizational support (POS) with subordinates' perceptions of support from their supervisors (perceived supervisor support [PSS]), POS, and in-role and extra-role performance. The authors found that supervisors' POS was positively related to their subordinates' perceptions of supervisor support. Subordinates' PSS, in turn, was positively associated with their POS, in-role performance, and extra-role performance. Beyond these bivariate relationships, subordinates' perceptions of support from the supervisor mediated positive relationships of the supervisors' POS with the subordinates' POS and performance. These findings suggest that supervisors who feel supported by the organization reciprocate with more supportive treatment for subordinates.     

Thinking aloud performance: Individual consistencies over tasks

Previous research (Gilhooly, 1987) indicated considerable individual consistency in quantity and quality of thinking aloud performance over three 8-puzzle tasks. The present study investigated the consistency of individual thinking aloud performance over two types of tasks. One type was largely spatial (the 8-puzzle) and the other largely verbal (the Poisoned Foods task). Considerable individual consistency in thinking aloud performance was found within each task type and, more importantly, between types of task. Thus, subjects who produced lengthy and complete protocols on the 8-puzzle problems also did so in the Poisoned Foods task. These results are discussed in the context of Ericsson and Simon’s (1984) model of thinking aloud.