可以兼顾策略、认知状态和能力的CD-CAT选题方法

当CD-CAT测验需要同时诊断被试的解题策略、认知状态并评估被试的宏观能力时,就需要在选题过程中兼顾这三个测量目标。用两种不同方式将多策略香农熵(MSSHE)指标与Fisher信息量相结合,提出多策略情境中的DWI指标MSDWI)选题法与“先用MSSHE后用Fisher信息量”的两步选题法。基于多策略RRUM模型(MS-RRUM),将这两种方法与随机选题法在不同属性数量条件下进行模拟比较,结果表明：当属性数量为4个或6个时,两步选题法在策略判准率、认知状态判准率和能力估计三个方面都有最佳的效果。     

Text memory and integration at different times of day

This paper reports an experiment that explored whether the extent to which the ideas in a text are integrated changes over the day. In order to monitor integration, a task used by Wilkes, Alred and Al-Ahmar (1983) was adopted. The assumption underlying the task was that information that is inconsistent with respect to preceding information in a text will be remembered differently from information that is not inconsistent. Obviously, such selective remembering cannot occur if the information in the text is not integrated, so the degree to which differential remembering occurs can be taken as an index of degree of integration. Although the predicted differences in degree of integration between morning and afternoon subjects were not confirmed, the morning superiority effect in text recall was replicated, and it was demonstrated that this superiority arose because of the morning subjects' better memory for the exact wording of the text. In addition, subjects showed different types of recall error at the two times of day. These errors are discussed in relation to subjects' hypothesized changes in strategy over the day.     

Chunk and Permeate,a Paraconsistent Inference Strategy. Part I: The Infinitesimal Calculus

In this paper we introduce a paraconsistent reasoning strategy, Chunk and Permeate. In this, information is broken up into chunks, and a limited amount of information is allowed to flow between chunks. We start by giving an abstract characterisation of the strategy. It is then applied to model the reasoning employed in the original infinitesimal calculus. The paper next establishes some results concerning the legitimacy of reasoning of this kind – specifically concerning the preservation of the consistency of each chunk – and concludes with some other possible applications and technical questions.     

大学生论文自然阅读的策略研究

本文探讨大学生论文自然阅读所采用的策略。包括两个实验,实验1对大学生在自然阅读,采用信息阅读策略与采用结构阅读策略等三种情况下把握文章信息的情况进行比较,探讨大学生自然阅读的策略特点;实验2对大学生在上述三种策略情况下把握文章重点信息的情况进行比较,进一步探讨大学生自然阅读的策略特点。研究结果表明,大学生自然阅读与采用信息阅读策略进行阅读两种情况下,无论是对文章一般信息还是文章重要信息的把握,都表现出基本相同的模式,而与采用结构阅读策略的结果不同,初步说明大学生论文自然阅读采用的策略是信息阅读策略而非结构阅读策略。     

Memory strategies used by young normal and retarded children in a directed forgetting paradigm

Two experiments were reported investigating the possibility that normal children (6- to 7-years old) and retarded children (9- to 10-years old) equated for immediate memory performance may not use effective strategies to eliminate interference from irrelevant information in memory. In both experiments a directed forgetting paradigm was used in which the children were presented with two sets of four pictures, and recalled only one set on each trial. On some trials, there was a cue to forget the first four and to remember only the last four pictures. In the first experiment both groups adopted a passive-active strategy in which the to-be-remembered items were processed actively only after a forget cue. Experiment 2 replicated this pattern of results. The use of sophisticated directed forgetting strategies seemed to be beyond the immediate abilities of these children. Two possible interpretations of the passive-active strategy were offered: (a) The strategy was an attempt to cope with the presence of occasionally irrelevant information and (b) The strategy was an attempt to cope with memory overload.     

More evidence for a dual-process model of conditional reasoning

Many studies have shown that the deductive inferences that people make have global properties that reflect the statistical information implicit in the premises. This suggests that such reasoning can be explained by a single, underlying probabilistic model. In contrast, the dual process model of conditional reasoning (Verschueren, Schaeken, & d'Ydewalle, 2005b) proposes that people can use either a logical, counterexample-based strategy or a probabilistic one. In two studies, we presented reasoners with sequences of affirmation-of-the-consequent inferences that differed with respect to the statistical properties of the premises, either explicitly or implicitly. As predicted by the dual-process model, an analysis of individual response patterns showed the presence of two distinct strategies, with use of the counterexample strategy being associated with higher levels of abstract-reasoning competence. Use of the counterexample strategy was facilitated by the explicit presentation of counterexample information. In a further study, we then examined explicitly probabilistic inferences. This study showed that although most reasoners made statistically appropriate inferences, the ability to make more-accurate inferences was associated with higher levels of abstract reasoning competence. These results show that deductive inferential reasoning cannot be explained by a single, unitary process and that any analysis of reasoning must consider individual differences in strategy use.     

Information access in a dual-task context: testing a model of optimal strategy selection

Pilots were required to access information from a hierarchical aviation database by navigating under single-task conditions (Experiment 1) and when this task was time-shared with an altitude-monitoring task of varying bandwidth and priority (Experiment 2). In dual-task conditions, pilots had 2 viewports available, 1 always used for the information task and the other to be allocated to either task. Dual-task strategy, inferred from the decision of which task to allocate to the 2nd viewport, revealed that allocation was generally biased in favor of the monitoring task and was only partly sensitive to the difficulty of the 2 tasks and their relative priorities. Some dominant sources of navigational difficulties failed to adaptively influence selection strategy. The implications of the results are to provide tools for jumping to the top of the database, to provide 2 viewports into the common database, and to provide training as to the optimum viewport management strategy in a multitask environment.     

If you suffer from a headache, then you have a brain tumour: domain-specific reasoning 'bias' and hypochondriasis

We explored whether hypochondriacal patients selectively search for threat-confirming information when asked to judge the validity of conditional rules in the context of general and health threats. We also explored several factors that may underly participants' information selection (e.g., believability of the rule). Hypochondriacal patients (n = 20) and healthy controls (n = 20) were presented with modified Wason Selection Tasks (WSTs). The WSTs contained safety rules and danger rules. In the context of general threat, both groups of participants adopted a verificationistic strategy in the case of danger rules and a Popperian strategy in the case of safety rules. Importantly, only hypochondriacal persons showed a similar threat-confirming reasoning pattern in the context of health threat. The latter finding contrasts with the earlier study of de Jong et al. (1998) [de Jong, P. J., Haenen, M.-A., Schmidt, A., & Mayer, B. (1998a). Hypochondriasis: the role of fear-confirming reasoning. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 65-74; de Jong, P. J., Mayer, B., van der Hijden, B., B?gels, S., & van den Hout, M. (1998b). Better safe than sorry: reasoning with conditionals in the context of threat. Submitted for publication.] in which both hypochondriacs and healthy controls showed a threat-confirming strategy in the domain of health threat. The WSTs in that study however, contained a (unintended) worry manipulation ("after hearing this, you get worried"), which might have induced a reasoning strategy in controls that is normally restricted to hypochondriacs. Taken together, the present results sustain the idea that the perception of threat activates a better safe than sorry strategy. In the case of phobic threats, such a reasoning strategy immunizes against refutation of phobic convictions.     

Costs and benefits of strategy construction in a speeded discrimination task

The costs and benefits of constructing and utilizing a strategy for performing a speeded discrimination task were assessed in terms of time and mental resources. The strategy involved using information about the position a word occupied in order to respond to its identity more rapidly. The resources used to construct and utilize the strategy were assessed from responses to probes presented at various times during the task. In Experiment 1, the probe required a manual response, whereas in Experiment 2, the probe required a vocal response. Strategy construction interfered with the probe task in Experiment 1 but not in Experiment 2, suggesting that strategy construction required resources specific to the manual response system. There was also some evidence that strategy construction required general resources, but the evidence for specific resources was much stronger. The findings are consistent with our previous ideas about how the strategy is represented (Logan, 1980a; Logan & Zbrodoff, 1979). The different results with different responses to the probes point out important limitations on previous studies of probe interference and of cost-benefit analysis, which each focused on a single dimension of cost and benefit. The differences suggest that a multiple-resources approach to probe interference and cost-benefit analysis might be more appropriate.     

Strategies in the information search process: interaction among task structure, knowledge, and source

The authors explored the information search strategies of 145 individuals in the predecisional stage. Decision-making participants selected pieces of information from a list including relevant and irrelevant data. The authors investigated the influence of the individual's knowledge and information source. In Experiment 1, the authors experimentally manipulated the information source reliability. The results revealed that participants tended to use a sequential strategy when the authors presented information as supplied by a reliable source. In Experiment 2, the authors analyzed the interaction between information source and the individuals' knowledge. When participants believed the source to be reliable, even knowledgeable participants adopted a strategy as sequential as that chosen by naive individuals. In Experiment 3, a mediational model corroborated the hypothesis that the search strategy affects the final judgment. The results were consistent with the constructivist framework, which emphasizes the role of individual, task, and context in the decision-making process.     

Teaching Counselor Trainees a Divergent Versus a Convergent Hypothesis-Formation Strategy

Hypothesis-formation skills were assessed for 40 graduate counseling students randomly assigned to training in either a divergent or convergent hypothesis-formation strategy. Rating scales assessed skills in accounting for a comprehensive range of client information and for questions used in hypothesis testing. MANOVA results indicated that trainees in the divergent-training condition cited significantly more units of hypothesis information and more supportive information units and posed more hypothesis-testing questions than did trainees in the convergent training condition. Findings suggest that trainees using a divergent strategy were able to formulate more comprehensive and multidimensional clinical hypotheses. Implications for training and research are presented.     

Strategies in the Information Search Process: Interaction Among Task Structure,Knowledge, and Source

The authors explored the information search strategies of 145 individuals in the predecisional stage. Decision-making participants selected pieces of information from a list including relevant and irrelevant data. The authors investigated the influence of the individual's knowledge and information source. In Experiment 1, the authors experimentally manipulated the information source reliability. The results revealed that participants tended to use a sequential strategy when the authors presented information as supplied by a reliable source. In Experiment 2, the authors analyzed the interaction between information source and the individuals' knowledge. When participants believed the source to be reliable, even knowledgeable participants adopted a strategy as sequential as that chosen by naive individuals. In Experiment 3, a mediational model corroborated the hypothesis that the search strategy affects the final judgment. The results were consistent with the constructivist framework, which emphasizes the role of individual, task, and context in the decision-making process.     

Analyzing information search patterns to test the use of a two-phased decision strategy

This study compares three procedures, Payne's index, Van Raaij's index and the single Markov model, to test the hypothesis that subjects apply two decision strategies successively in making a choice. The information search patterns were gathered for 72 subjects by means of an information display board. The decision tasks varied in complexity (3, 5, 8 alternatives and 4, 6, 8 attributes). The number of tests which resulted in a significant difference (p < 0.05) were respectively, six out of eighteen t-tests for Payne's index, fourteen out of eighteen t-tests regarding Van Raaij's index, and eight out of nine Chi-square tests for the single Markov model. The theoretical considerations as well as the results suggest that Payne's index is the least sensitive, and that Van Raaij's index, compared to the Markov model, is less sensitive to detect a difference in strategies used.     

Intentional forgetting: Note-taking as a naturalistic example

In the present study, we examined whether note-taking as a memory aid may provide a naturalistic example of intentional forgetting. In the first experiment, participants played Concentration, a memory card game in which the identity and location of pairs of cards need to be remembered. Before the game started, half of the participants were allowed to study the cards, and the other half made notes that were then unexpectedly taken away. No significant differences emerged between the two groups for remembering identity information, but the study group remembered significantly more location information than did the note-taking group. In a second experiment, we examined whether note-takers would show signs of proactive interference while playing Concentration repeatedly. The results indicated that they did not. The findings suggest that participants adopted an intentional-forgetting strategy when using notes to store certain types of information.     

信息的充分性和情绪性对推理的影响：时间压力的调节作用

主要探讨推理中信息相关因素对分析系统与启发式系统的影响。通过两个实验考察信息的充分性和情绪性对突发事件情境下推理的影响。实验1任务无时间压力,结果发现：信息充分性对推理的影响显著,表现为信息越充分,被试推理的逻辑指数越高,更多使用了分析系统;且信息充分时,接受积极信息的被试的信念指数显著增高。实验2任务有时间压力,结果发现：信息的情绪性对推理的影响显著,表现为接受积极信息的被试推理的逻辑指数显著大于接受消极信息组,更多使用了分析系统。两个实验结果表明,信息的充分性主要通过分析系统对推理产生影响,而信息的情绪性可通过双系统影响推理过程,即积极信息在推理时间充裕时促进启发式系统,但在有时间压力下促进分析系统。     

Comprehension strategies in the development of a mental model.

It is generally assumed that the comprehension strategy used in the development of a mental model for narrative texts focuses on information that is relevant to the protagonist. Experiments 1a and 1b confirmed that readers remain sensitive to the location of the protagonist even when strategies based on text-base level representations predict this information should not be active. Experiments 2 and 3 tested the stronger claim that readers adopt the perspective of the protagonist. Ss did not notice information that was contradictory from the perspective of the protagonist unless explicitly instructed to adopt that perspective. It was concluded that, at the level of the mental model, readers focus on information relevant to the protagonist but that they do not adopt the perspective of the protagonist unless characteristics of the text induce such a strategy.     

Sensitivity to Shared Information in Social Learning

Social learning has been shown to be an evolutionarily adaptive strategy, but it can be implemented via many different cognitive mechanisms. The adaptive advantage of social learning depends crucially on the ability of each learner to obtain relevant and accurate information from informants. The source of informants’ knowledge is a particularly important cue for evaluating advice from multiple informants; if the informants share the source of their information or have obtained their information from each other, then their testimony is statistically dependent and may be less reliable than testimony from informants who do not share information. In this study, we use a Bayesian model to determine how rational learners should incorporate the effects of shared information when learning from other people, conducting three experiments that examine whether human learners behave similarly. We find that people are sensitive to a number of different patterns of dependency, supporting the use of a sophisticated strategy for social learning that goes beyond copying the majority, and broadening the situations in which social learning is likely to be an adaptive strategy.     

Attentional strategies and the visual control of discrete movements

The relationship between the availability of visual information and attention demands during the production of a discrete motor act was examined. Subjects were required to move a linear slide a distance of 15 cm in both 150 and 600 msec conditions under three light manipulations, viz., light always on; light always terminated as movement began; or, subject was unsure as to whether light would stay on or terminate. A simple key press by the index finger of the opposite hand to a tone was used as a secondary task and a measure of attention demands. The light manipulation influenced attention demands on the rapid 150 msec movement such that more attention was demanded when the subject knew the light would terminate. No such attentional strategy differences were found with the slow 600 msec movement. These findings suggest that task constraints in the form of kinematic criteria, together with the perceived availability of visual information, contribute to determining attentional strategy in movement production.     

Strategies of text retrieval: a criterion shift account.

This study scrutinized people's ability to apply different strategies to randomly intermixed immediate and delayed test items. In three experiments, participants first read one set of stories. Later, they read more stories, and after each one, answered intermixed questions about that story and one of the earlier ones. The experiments cumulatively manipulated amount of delay, test probe plausibility, probe relation (explicit, paraphrase, inference), and testing procedure (mixed versus uniform delay). Using signal detection response criterion as the index of strategy, we contrasted the single criterion hypothesis, according to which one text retrieval criterion is applied to all test items, and a multiple-criterion hypothesis. The results consistently favoured the multiple-criterion hypothesis. The results also indicated that the presence of immediate and delayed probes mutually influence one another: Less extreme signal detection criteria were adopted under mixed than uniform testing. It was concluded that text retrieval strategy is continually calibrated with reference to the quality of the test probes.