LEADERSHIP EMERGENCE AND SOURCE VALENCE: CONCEPTS IN SUPPORT OF INTERACTION THEORY AND MEASUREMENT

This study sought to determine what perceived characteristics discriminate between leaders and nonleaders in a small group situation. After interacting for three work periods, members of several groups evaluated one another on a source valence instrument containing measures of credibility, attraction, and homophily. During subsequent meetings, a computerized technique (PROANA5) was used to analyze group interaction and identify group leaders. Results indicated that three variables: task attraction, extroversion, and character provided reasonably accurate classifications of leaders and nonleaders. Findings were discussed in terms of Gibb's interaction theory of group leadership.     

CANDIDATE VALENCE AS A PREDICTOR OF VOTER PREFERENCE

The effects of source valence, including its components source credibility, attraction, and homophily, on voter preference were examined in this study. A systematic sample with a random start of 350 registered Democratic voters in Tallahassee, Florida, was used to test the effects of eight dimensions of source valence on voter preference. The differential valence of the two candidates was the best predictor of voter preference. The eight-variable model accounted for 61% of the variance in voter preference, while attitude homophily alone accounted for 58% of that variance.     

Book Reviews

Building upon previous research on student attitudes to Christianity, an instrument that assesses the perceptions on four Attitude to Christianity dimensions (viz., Attitude to Prayer, God, and Jesus; Attitude to the Bible; Attitude to Christian Practice; and Attitude to Social Justice) was developed. A sample of 1,317 students in Australian Catholic high schools was used to validate this instrument. Comparisons of attitudes to Christianity between students in Catholic boys', girls', and coeducational schools and between students of different age and gender illustrated the usefulness of these four scales.     

Seeing the unseen: ostracism interventionary behaviour and its impact on employees

This article outlines the development and validation of the ostracism interventionary behaviour (OIB) scale. Based on in-depth interviews with employees, leaders, and content experts in addition to 603 survey respondents from Canada and the United States, 3 dimensions emerged to describe the ways in which leaders confront workplace ostracism-related cues and a measure was created to assess them. These refer to the ability for leaders to foster an inclusive workgroup dynamic and enact effective third-party interpersonal interventions through displays of (1) social awareness, (2) proactivity, and (3) harmony-seeking behaviour. In addition to possessing convergent and discriminant validity, the OIB scale demonstrated criterion-related validity through its relation with perceived workplace ostracism and well-being. Furthermore, evidence supported the scale’s test–retest reliability and predictive validity over and above leader–member exchange. Overall, the measure was found to be both reliable and valid, with important implications for the effective management of instances of ostracism at work.     

MEASURING PERCEPTIONS OF THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT FOR WOMEN IN CORPORATE SETTINGS

This study developed a scale to measure individual perceptions of dimensions of the work organization that contribute to a supportive or hostile environment for women. Based on analysis of survey data from 398 respondents working in corporate settings, a scale was developed to measure five dimensions: Dual Standards & Opportunities; Sexist Attitudes & Comments; Informal Socializing; Balancing Work & Personal Obligations; and Remediation Policies & Practices. Women perceived their work environments as significantly more hostile on all five dimensions than did men. Scores on the scale were related to intent to stay with the organization: For both men and women, the friendlier they perceived the work environment for women to be, the longer individuals intended to stay at the company.     

The Moderating Roles of Perceived Task Interdependence and Team Size in Transformational Leadership’s Relation to Team Identification: A Dimensional Analysis

This study is aimed at investigating perceived task interdependence and team size as contingencies for team leaders’ transformational leadership influence on team identification. Data were obtained from a two-phase survey among 234 employees from ten multinational pharmaceutical subsidiaries in South Korea. Each dimension of transformational leadership by team leaders relates positively to team identification. However, the impact of leadership dimensions on team identification is attenuated by distinct moderator(s): charisma by higher perceived task interdependence, individualized consideration by larger team size, and intellectual stimulation by higher perceived task interdependence or larger team size. This study’s findings help us develop a more nuanced understanding of how transformational leadership operates. This study illustrates that team leaders’ transformational influence on team identification fluctuates, depending on the team structure. Such knowledge may help inform team leader development and team-structuring strategies used by practitioners and may contribute to improving organizational team effectiveness. This is one of the first studies showing evidence that the influence of the dimensions of transformational leadership is contingent upon distinct moderators, thereby contributing to advancing the theory of transformational leadership. Further, this study, by investigating team structure as a contingency of the transformational leadership-team identification relationship, complements previous research that focused on follower characteristics. Additionally, our explicit attention to the team as both the context of leaders’ action and the target of employee identification helps us gain a more concrete understanding of team leadership and team development issues, which are particularly salient in the highly competitive pharmaceutical industry.     

The relationship of supervisor and trainee gender match and gender attitude match to supervisory style and the supervisory working alliance

Background: Gender‐related events have the potential to impact the supervisory relationship. Gender events might be related to the match between supervisors and supervisees on variables such as gender or gender attitudes. Method: In this study, we sought to determine whether gender match and gender attitude match were related to supervisory style and the supervisory working alliance in 94 supervisory dyads using four instruments: the Gender Attitude Inventory; Operationalisation of Gender Match; Supervisory Styles Inventory; and the Working Alliance Inventory/Supervision. Results: Progressive dyads (in which supervisors have more liberal attitudes about societal issues and culturally defined roles for women than their supervisees) were perceived by supervisors as more task‐oriented than parallel‐high dyads (in which supervisors and supervisees both had liberal attitudes). Implications for counselling supervision are discussed.     

Social support as a multifaceted concept: Examination of important dimensions for adjustment

Four commonly used operationalizations of the social support concept: network contact frequency, satisfaction with support (including nine dimensions), perceived availability of support, and use of support, were related to two measures of psychological adjustment (Beck Depression Inventory and Symptom Checklist-90) and to one measure of physical adjustment (Cornell Medical Index). Subjects were 68 45- to 85-year-old, highly stressed care-givers to spouses with Alzheimer's disease. Results indicate that of the four operationalizations, Satisfaction with Support was the only significant predictor of depression and general psychopathology. The set of four support variables showed the strongest relationship to depression level, next strongest to general psychopathology, and least to physical health. The satisfaction with nine social support dimensions related differentially to the types of adjustment. Results suggest the importance of specificity (sample, support operationalization, dimensions, adjustment measures) in social support research.     

领导执行公正准则的理论基础及影响因素

领导执行公正准则指领导展现与组织公正各维度的准则相一致的管理行为。解释该行为的主要理论为社会交换理论和公正道义模型。领导的道德特质、公正经历、地位以及领导与员工互动中知觉到的员工的交流风格、可信性、归属需要是影响领导执行公正准则的主要因素。未来研究应进一步探讨组织因素对领导执行公正准则的影响, 从模型互补的角度完善理论解释, 明确间接交换对领导执行公正准则的影响, 并开展领导执行公正准则的本土化研究。     

Naive psychology and the attributional model of achievement

Open-ended explanations for the success and failure outcomes of others were obtained from (N= 226) undergraduates. Only 23% of the 2,495 explanations generated by these naive psychologists could be readily categorized as one of the four causal elements of the Weiner model of achievement attributions. An individual difference model of multidimensional scaling of the explanations for success and failure was performed separately. Because the explanations for success and failure were generally asymmetrical, the three dimensions of success explanations had little resemblance to the three dimensions of failure explanations. The success dimensions were labelled Achievement Orientation, Vitality, and Mastery. The failure dimensions were labelled Insufficient Energy, Poor Work Attitude, und Lack Ability.     

A comprehensive model and measure of compensation satisfaction

We describe the results of two studies designed to develop a comprehensive theoretical model and measure of compensation satisfaction. Our typology of compensation satisfaction consists of seven dimensions: four for pay (level, structure, raises, and variable pay procedures satisfaction) and three dimensions for benefits (level, determination, and administration satisfaction). We used new and existing items to develop the Comprehensive Compensation Satisfaction Questionnaire. In Study 1, we report the results of exploratory factor analysis that supports a seven‐factor structure. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis supported the same seven‐factor structure in a different sample. We examined relationships between the compensation satisfaction dimensions and their antecedents and consequences. Seven hypotheses regarding differential antecedents of compensation satisfaction were supported. Satisfaction with aspects of compensation procedures were related to perceived organizational support, and perceived organizational support mediated the relationships between these compensation satisfaction procedures and affective commitment and turnover intentions. Our final analysis yielded a 29‐item scale (including eight new items) which we recommend for use in future compensation satisfaction research.     

Forgiveness aversion: developing a motivational state measure of perceived forgiveness risks

Given the demonstrated psychological, physical, and social benefits of forgiveness, it is striking that there are still strong impediments to its attainment. In this paper, we introduce the multi-dimensional construct of forgiveness aversion, an offense-specific motivational state based on perceived forgiveness risks. The construct and our proposed measure (the Forgiveness Aversion Scale) are composed of three related dimensions: unreadiness, self-protection, and face concerns. Unreadiness refers to the ongoing emotional turmoil that keeps victims from sincerely forgiving. Self-protection refers to the concerns about how offenders will interpret forgiveness. Finally, face concerns reflect victims’ concerns for their reputation. Four studies were completed to develop a state measure of forgiveness aversion through correlation, structural equations modeling, longitudinal analysis, and a hypothetical scenario experiment. Results of four studies reveal differential predictors of the three dimensions of forgiveness aversion and demonstrate that our understanding of the forgiveness process and impediments thereto is enhanced by addressing situation-specific impediments to forgiveness.     

Facial resemblances between heterosexual, gay, and lesbian couples

Researchers have noted a physical resemblance (homophily) between human sex partners. To date, these studies and their related interpretations have been based on heterosexual couples. The present study compared physical resemblances between gay, lesbian, and heterosexual couples, using 40 photographs of each from national newspapers, which were rated by 34 men and 56 women (M age = 53 yr., SD = 12.1). Half the photographs were of actual couples and half were randomly mixed within each group. Actual couples were rated as significantly more similar in appearance than random pairings of people. Ratings of similarity were significantly higher (indicating greater perceived homophily) for gay couples than heterosexual couples, while there was no statistically significant difference in similarity ratings between lesbian couples versus gay and heterosexual couples. The results were interpreted in terms of evolutionary and parental imprinting hypotheses.     

Evaluation of a Measure of Self-Esteem Based on the Concept of Unconditional Self-Regard

A measure of unconditional self-regard (USR) derived from Rogerian (client-centered) theory was evaluated in four studies. Results indicated that USR was highly reliable and was strongly related to other measures of self-esteem and negatively related to depression, anxiety, and symptoms of psychological distress. The measure was significantly related to the control and commitment dimensions of psychological hardiness but not to its challenge dimension. Evidence for discriminant validity was provided by findings that USR was unrelated to social desirability or private self-consciousness. Finally, female students'self-regard was significantly related to the unconditional positive regard they reported receiving from their mothers. Other correlations between self-regard and perceived regard from others, although nonsignificant, were often large in absolute value. Implications for counseling interventions are discussed.     

Images of women in advertisements: Effects on attitudes related to sexual aggression

While the power of advertisements has long been known, investigations of sociocultural influences on sexual attitudes have been limited primarily to studies of sexually aggressive media. In this study we examined the effects on sexual attitudes of different portrayals of women in advertisements. Male and female white middle-class university students were exposed to one of three groups of advertisements. In one condition women were depicted as sex objects, in another in progressive or role-reversed roles, and a third condition comprised product oriented advertisements containing no human figures. Sexual attitudes were assessed using four subscales of Burt's Sexual Attitude Survey of 1980, a measure of attitudes believed to be rape-supportive, and conducive to sexual aggression against women. Before completing the Survey, subjects rated a series of advertisements on appeal and aesthetic dimensions. Whereas the product oriented advertisements were rated as more appealing than those featuring female figures, analyses showed that males exposed to the sex-object advertisements significantly more accepting of rape-supportive attitudes, and females exposed to the progressive female images were less accepting of such attitudes than were controls.     

Israelis' attitudes toward the disengagement plan, perceived risk, and knowledge of Biblical events

A sample of 73 Israeli students perceived current risks related to the disengagement plan but showed low awareness of Biblical civil wars and political assassinations. Attitude toward disengagement did not correlate with current perceived risks or awareness of Biblical violence. Left-leaning subjects were more supportive of disengagement and perceived greater risk of political assassination in its wake.     

Athlete leadership dispersion and satisfaction in interactive sport teams

ObjectiveAthlete leadership on sport teams can be represented by an individual occupying a formal or informal leadership role within a team who influences a group of team members to achieve a common goal [Loughead, Hardy, & Eys, (2006). The nature of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29, 142–158]. Previous research has suggested that individuals involved in sport view the presence of athlete leaders as a crucial component to the effective functioning of the team [Glenn & Horn, (1993) Psychological and personal predictors of leadership behavior in female soccer athletes. Journal Applied of Sport psychology, 5, 17–34]. The purpose of the present study was to examine, at both the beginning and end of a competitive season, the relationship between individual perceptions of athlete leader dispersion across three types of leadership functions (i.e., task, social, external) and satisfaction.MethodParticipants included 218 intercollegiate athletes from a variety of interactive team sports. At the beginning and end of their competitive seasons, athletes indicated who the task, social, and external leaders were on their respective teams and responded to four dimensions of the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire [Riemer & Chelladurai, (1998) Development of the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, 127–156].ResultsThose who perceived all three leadership functions to be represented to the same degree (i.e., higher number of leaders for all three functions, an average number of leaders for all three functions, or a lower number of leaders for all three functions) were more satisfied with their team's performance and degree to which the team was integrated than those individuals who perceived an imbalance in the number of athletes engaging in those functions.ConclusionThe relative number of leaders within sport groups is related to individual perceptions of satisfaction.     

THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL TRAINING LABORATORIES UPON THE EFFECTIVENESS AND INTERACTION OF ONGOING WORK GROUPS

The impact upon four work groups (N= 31) which participated in organizational training laboratory sessions is evaluated in comparison with eight similar groups (N= 60) which did not participate. Criteria were six-factored dimensions, each composed of items gathered from earlier interviews which group members perceived as problems. Significant changes occurred in training groups in the following three dimensions: group effectiveness, mutual influence, and personal involvement. No significant changes occurred in leader approachability, intragroup trust, or in the evaluation of group meetings. The relevance of a work unit participating in training as a total group, rather than each member participating in a separate session, is discussed.