A multimodal treatment strategy for behavior problems in toddlers

The article focuses on a multimodal strategy for the treatment of behavior problems commonly associated with toddlers. These problem behaviors, which include temper tantrums, bedtime and sleep difficulties, aggressiveness, not listening, and eating problems, are among the most often presented to mental health professionals who deal with this age group. The treatment approach, which combines clinically pertinent aspects of dynamic, behavioral, and family approaches, includes the following components: data collection (problem clarification, family-of-origin interviews, interactional sessions), formulation of hypotheses, introduction of a behaviorally oriented management program, tracking of problems inherent in the implementation and successful management of the behavioral program, and booster sessions. The treatment strategy is illustrated by a clinical case. Each component of the treatment, along with its inherent clinical problems/difficulties, is discussed.     

A multidimensional assessment of the validity of the Personal Orientation Inventory

The present study investigated the validity of a global measure of self-actualization derived from the POI. The POI Inner-directed scale was related to numerous objective indices of self-actualizing characteristics (e.g., self-esteem, rigidity, empathy). Bivariate and multivariate correlational techniques presented a consistent picture of the self-actualizing dimensions tapped by the POI Id scale (e.g., self-esteem) as well as the self-actualizing characteristics unrelated to Id scale scores (e.g., machiavellianism). The results help to clarify the specific nature of the attributes measured by the Id scale, partially supporting its construct validity as an omnibus measure of actualizing tendencies. Finally, a new, face-valid measure of self-actualization is introduced which proved as valid as the POI as an index of self-actualization, with a considerable gain in parsimony.     

The additive constant problem in multidimensional scaling

The problem of choosing the correct additive constant to convert relative interstimulus distances to absolute interstimulus distances in multidimensional scaling is investigated. An artificial numerical example is constructed, and various trial values of the constant are inserted to demonstrate the effect on the multidimensional map of making a variety of incorrect choices. Finally, a general solution to the problem, suggested by Dr. Ledyard R Tucker, is presented; each of the computational steps in this solution is set down for easy reference.This study was supported in part by Office of Naval Research Contract N6onr-270-20 and by National Science Foundation Grant G-642 to Princeton University.     

Coping behavior: Implications for disabled infants and toddlers

This article discusses the coping process and examines issues concerning the influence of a handicapping condition on the development of coping competence in young children. A preliminary study is reported that investigated the differences between the coping behavior of 25 developmentally disabled and 25 nondisabled children who were 4 to 34 months of age. The Early Coping Inventory was used to assess three categories of behavior related to adaptive coping efforts (sensorimotor organization, reactive behavior, and self-initiated behavior). Results indicated that the nondisabled children, as a group, demonstrated more effective coping-related behavior than did their disabled peers. The disabled children were situationally effective, in that behavior used effectively in one type of situation was not generalized to other types of situations. Their coping behavior tended to be erratic, inflexible, or limited in the range of available management strategies. The greatest discrepancy between the two groups was in their self-initiated behavior. The findings suggest the need for intervention services to address the enhancement of coping behavior of infants and toddlers with disabilities.     

A new solution to the additive constant problem in metric multidimensional scaling

A new solution to the additive constant problem in metric multidimensional scaling is developed. This solution determines, for a given dimensionality, the additive constant and the resulting stimulus projections on the dimensions of a Euclidean space which minimize the sum of squares of discrepancies between the formal model for metric multidimensional scaling and the original data. A modification of Fletcher-Powell style functional iteration is used to compute solutions. A scale free index of the goodness of fit is developed to aid in selecting solutions of adequate dimensionality from multiple candidates.This research is based in part on the author's Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Computer time was provided by the Campus Computing Network of the University of California, Los Angeles.     

Computer-based preference models for generic multidimensional problem sets

Alternative actions or objects can be characterized by differences among defining attributes or dimensions. Making choices among these alternatives is often a complex and difficult task, particularly when the number of alternatives or defining attributes is large or the time to decide is limited. This paper describes two programs that allow users to define a multidimensional problem domain and derive a multiplicative utility function that quantitatively describes their judgment policy within that domain. It also discusses potential applications for the derived preference models.     

Unimanual and bimanual tasks and the assessment of handedness in toddlers

The goal of this study was to examine the relations between three different measures of handedness: unimanual reaching, bimanual manipulation and unimanual manipulation. The appropriateness of the task chosen to evaluate handedness was also explored by contrasting different bimanual manipulation tasks for the more or less differentiated (passive\active) roles assigned to each hand. Forty children, between 18 and 36 months of age, were tested in the three conditions. The results show that the degree of bimanual handedness is greater on the bimanual tasks with a strong role differentiation than on the tasks with less differentiation. Bimanual tasks with a strong role differentiation elicited more right‐handedness than unimanual reaching. Among the children who showed handedness in reaching, the correlation between unimanual and bimanual handedness was high, especially for right‐handers. For some tasks, bimanual handedness appeared at the earliest age studied here (18 months), and there was little relationship between bimanual handedness and bimanual skill. In contrast with unimanual reaching, there was no age‐related change in the degree of handedness for either bimanual or unimanual manipulation. There was a bias toward the use of the right hand for unimanual manipulation. It was concluded that grasping is not the best task to employ to look for robust evidence of handedness, and that bimanual tasks offer a better way to estimate handedness in children, as long as the tasks are carefully chosen.     

A generalized dimensionality discrepancy measure for dimensionality assessment in multidimensional item response theory

A generalized dimensionality discrepancy measure is introduced to facilitate a critique of dimensionality assumptions in multidimensional item response models. Connections between dimensionality and local independence motivate the development of the discrepancy measure from a conditional covariance theory perspective. A simulation study and a real‐data analysis demonstrate the utility of the discrepancy measure's application at multiple levels of analysis in a posterior predictive model checking framework.     

Schema induction in problem solving: a multidimensional analysis

The present research examined the processes of schema formation in problem solving. In 4 experiments, participants experienced a series of tasks analogous to A. S. Luchins' (1942) water jar problems before attempting to solve isomorphic target problems. Juxtaposing illustrative source instances varying in procedural features along multiple dimensions promoted the construction of a general schema that facilitated solving an isomorphic problem requiring a novel procedure. Exposure to less variant problems led to faster initial learning, but narrower and fixed schemas (mental set), whereas exposure to variant procedures led to slower initial learning, but broader and more flexible schemas. The findings support the dimensional specificity hypothesis: Generalization along 1 dimension facilitates transfer to a target problem differing from the source problems in that dimension.     

Mothers' behavior modifications during pretense and their possible signal value for toddlers

An important issue for understanding early cognition is why very young children's real-world representations do not get confused by pretense events. One possible source of information for children is the pretender's behaviors. Pretender behaviors may vary systematically across real and pretend scenarios, perhaps signaling to toddlers to interpret certain events as not real. Pretender behaviors were examined in 2 experiments in which mothers were asked both to pretend to have a snack and really to have a snack with their 18-month-olds. Episodes were analyzed for condition differences in verbal and nonverbal behaviors, including smiling, looking, laughter, and functional movements. Reliable differences were found across conditions for several variables. In a 3rd experiment, children's apparent understanding of pretense in relation to their mothers' behaviors was examined, and significant associations were found with some of the mothers' behavioral changes but not others. This work provides a first inroad into the issue of how children learn to interpret pretense acts as pretense.     

Dimensions of behavior of toddlers entering early intervention: child and family correlates

This study examined the nature and correlates of the behavioral characteristics of a nationally representative sample of 1612 toddlers 18-31 months of age entering Part C early intervention services in the U.S. Factor analysis of 15 items describing child behavior collected as part of an extensive telephone interview of parents yielded four dimensions of behavior: difficult behaviors, lack of persistence, distractible, and withdrawn. Demographic and personal characteristics of the child and family were found to be related to the four behavioral dimensions. Parent reports of behavior of toddlers with fair or poor health or those with communication difficulties were less positive for all behavioral dimensions, suggesting the development of toddler behavioral characteristics is influencing or being influenced by other facets of development.     

A descriptive analysis of social consequences following problem behavior.

The social consequences delivered for problem behavior during functional analyses are presumed to represent common sources of reinforcement; Final acceptance however, the extent to which these consequences actually follow problem behavior in natural settings remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine whether access to attention, escape, or tangible items is frequently observed as a consequence of problem behavior under naturalistic conditions. Twenty‐seven adults who lived in a state residential facility and who exhibited self‐injurious behavior, aggression, or disruption participated. Observers recorded the occurrence of problem behavior by participants as well as a variety of consequences delivered by caregivers. Results indicated that attention was the most common consequence for problem behavior and that aggression was more likely to produce social consequences than were other forms of problem behavior.     

A multidimensional measure of neighboring

The study reports the development of a short and easily administered questionnaire aiming at measuring dimensions of social life within neighborhoods. Principal-components analysis consistently extracted four factors replicated in three independent samples (N=96 to 1,060). The factors emerged as theoretically meaningful dimensions tapping the concepts of supportive acts of neighboring, neighbor annoyance, neighborhood attachment, and weak social ties. Factor invariance and factor replicability were high. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity yielded acceptable results. The principal virtue of the measure is that it may be applied to discern qualitative differences between neighborhoods by simultaneous assessments of several dimensions of neighboring. This research was financially supported by The Norwegian National Research Council. We thank Jostein Rise for valuable comments, and David R. Jacobs, Jr., and Melanie Young for advice in translating the questionnaire.     

Personality processes and problem behavior

This article introduces the special issue of Journal of Personality on personality and problem behavior. There is growing evidence that various dimensions of personality are associated with a broad range of problem behaviors such as drug and alcohol use, sexual risk-taking, interpersonal violence, and gambling. To date, research on personality and problem behavior has focused almost exclusively on documenting simple, direct associations between personality traits and problem behaviors. This article proposes an expanded research agenda, a second generation of research and theory on the role of personality in problem behavior. The agenda specifies two major classes of second-generation hypotheses. Moderator hypotheses concern the conditions under which the influence of personality on problem behavior is magnified, weakened, or eliminated. Mediator hypotheses concern the causal processes that underlie the influence of personality on problem behavior. Articles in the special issue, which are summarized in this introduction, exemplify the proposed second generation of research on personality and problem behavior.     

The problem of the additive constant and eigenvalues in metric multidimensional scaling

This paper is concerned with the additive constant problem in metric multidimensional scaling. First the influence of the additive constant on eigenvalues of a scalar product matrix is discussed. The second part of this paper is devoted to the introduction of a new formulation of the additive constant problem. A solution is given for fixed dimensionality, by maximizing a normalized index of fit with a gradient method. An experimental computation has shown that the author's solution is accurate and easy to follow.     

Imagery: A multidimensional construct

Two sets of words were independently rated for imagery. Each set of words contained concrete nouns, e.g., bell, and adjectives, e.g., yellow, as well as nouns and adjectives describing affects, e.g., angry, and physical states, e.g., hungry. Factor analysis of the ratings indicated two factors or sources of variance in each set of words. These were interpreted as a Visual factor, and an Experienced States factor. These results indicated that imagery ratings are best conceptualized as reflections of multiple modes of imagining rather than ease of visualization alone.     

A multidimensional measure of work valences

Work valence is derived from expectancy-valence theory and the literature on children's vocational development and is presumed to be a general appraisal of work that emerges during the childhood period. Work valence serves to promote and inhibit the motivation and tasks associated with vocational development. A measure of work valence, composed of perceptions about future work experiences and affects, is developed and tested employing samples of high school and university students. Multi-group confirmatory factor models demonstrated that the Work Valence Scale (WVS) conformed to a hierarchical measurement model and may be employed to yield a general work valence construct or more specific positive and negative work valences. The WVS demonstrated metric invariance across the high school and university years. Criterion validity tests demonstrated that the general work valence was positively associated with work approach motivation and in-depth career exploration and negatively associated with work avoidance. Discriminant validity tests demonstrated that the positive and negative work valences and affectivities were only weakly correlated with general measures of affectivity.     

Adolescent empathy and prosocial behavior in the multidimensional context of school culture

The authors investigated whether students' positive perceptions of their high school's culture were associated with higher levels of empathy and prosocial behavior. The authors collected information from 2 samples to ensure a wide range of school culture perceptions. As expected, empathy and prosocial behavior were correlated. As evidence of the validity of the measure of school culture, students in a small alternative school perceived their school culture as more positive than did students in the companion large, traditional high school. More positive perceptions of school culture were associated with higher levels of empathy but not with prosocial behavior. Results were moderated by gender but not by age. Male students with higher levels of emotional concern (one aspect of empathy) perceived peer relationships (one aspect of school culture) to be more positive than did those with lower levels of emotional concern. This study highlights the importance of using multidimensional constructs for school culture and empathy to understand the effects of schooling on youth.