Bystander Response to Sexual Assault Disclosures in the U.S. Military: Encouraging Survivors to use Formal Resources

Experiencing military sexual assault (MSA) results in serious mental health consequences. Sexual assault survivors often disclose to informal sources of support, and how these individuals respond can have a significant effect on survivors’ wellbeing. Bystander intervention is one mechanism through which institutions, such as the U.S. Military, aim to teach informal support providers to respond positively and effectively to sexual assaults. One bystander response that survivors may find helpful is the discussion of formal resources (e.g., counseling options, reporting options). The current study examined factors associated with U.S. Service members’ intentions to encourage sexual assault survivors to report and seek mental health counseling, including individual characteristics (rank, gender, personal experience of MSA) and perceptions of military sexual assault response efforts (exposure to sexual assault training, leader response to sexual assault, service barriers). The study also examined contextual factors (branch) and interactions between individual and contextual predictors. We analyzed survey data from 27,505 active duty Service members collected by the U.S. Department of Defense. As expected, rank, gender, experience of MSA, training exposure, leader response, and service barriers were associated with Service members’ intentions to encourage MSA survivors to report and seek‐help. Bystander responses to disclosures can have a significant effect on survivors’ response to the assault, and these findings can help in identifying why bystanders may or may not encourage the use of formal resources after receiving a sexual assault disclosure.     

College Students’ Beliefs Regarding Help Seeking for Male and Female Sexual Assault Survivors: Even Less Support for Male Survivors

This study explored college students’ perceptions regarding barriers to disclosure of sexual assault and helpfulness of campus resources for survivors of sexual assault. To better understand barriers and social reactions to disclosure of sexual assault, it is important to examine peer perceptions of barriers and resources for assault survivors. A total of 475 undergraduate students estimated the frequency with which various barriers prevent sexual assault disclosure and rated the helpfulness of several campus resources for both male and female survivors. Students perceived that barriers to disclosure were more likely to prevent men than women from telling someone they were assaulted and seeking help. Students also believed that campus resources are more helpful for female than male survivors. Students’ negative perceptions of disclosure and help seeking for male survivors indicate that more education regarding the sexual assault of males and inclusive outreach is needed.     

“It Happens to Girls All the Time”: Examining Sexual Assault Survivors’ Reasons for Not Using Campus Supports

Sexual assault is a prevalent problem in higher education, and despite the increasing availability of formal supports on college campuses, few sexual assault survivors use them. Experiencing sexual assault can have devastating consequences on survivors’ psychological and educational wellbeing, which may intensify if survivors do not receive adequate care. Drawing from existing theoretical frameworks and empirical research, this study used a mixed methodological approach to examine why survivors did not use three key campus supports—the Title IX Office, the sexual assault center, and housing staff—and if these reasons differed across the three supports. Using data from 284 women who experienced sexual assault in college, our qualitative findings identified four overarching themes, including logistical issues (e.g., lacking time and knowledge), feelings, beliefs, and responses that made it seem unacceptable to use campus supports, judgments about the appropriateness of the support, and alternative methods of coping. Quantitative findings revealed that survivors’ reasons for not seeking help differed across supports. Collectively, our findings suggest that community norms and institutional policies can make it challenging for survivors to use campus supports. We propose several suggestions for institutional change (e.g., taking a stronger stance against “less serious” forms of sexual assault, reducing a quasi‐criminal justice approach to investigation and adjudication, limiting mandated reporting).     

DECIDING WHOM TO TELL: EXPECTATIONS AND OUTCOMES OF RAPE SURVIVORS' FIRST DISCLOSURES

In this study, 102 female rape survivors were interviewed regarding their first post-assault disclosure. Qualitative analysis revealed that nearly 75% of first disclosures were to informal support providers and over one third of the disclosures were not initiated by the survivors themselves. Over half of the survivors received positive reactions and less than one third felt the disclosure had a detrimental impact on their recovery. Loglinear analysis suggested that survivors who actively sought help from informal support providers were more likely to receive positive than negative reactions. In contrast, survivors who actively sought help from formal support providers were more likely to receive negative than positive reactions. When disclosure to formal support providers was initiated by the formal support providers themselves, however, survivors received exclusively positive reactions. Implications for future research are discussed.     

PSYCHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOCIAL REACTIONS QUESTIONNAIRE

Negative social reactions are common responses to disclosures of sexual assault. A study was undertaken to evaluate the psychometric characteristics of a new measure of social reactions to sexual assault victims, the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ). Good reliability and validity were demonstrated for the measure in three samples of sexual assault victims: community volunteers, college students, and victims contacting mental health agencies. The SRQ provides a much needed measure of both the positive forms of social support and several negative social reactions received by sexual assault victims disclosing their assaults to a range of informal social network members and formal support providers.     

Peer First Impressions of Childhood Maltreatment Victims

The impact of childhood maltreatment effects can extend beyond the immediate stress of abusive family environments. College students (N = 435) exposed to childhood domestic violence or parental physical abuse were expected to be viewed less favorably by their peers than their nonabused counterparts. They were expected as well to be less accurate in predicting the first impressions left on their peers after 25-minute unstructured interactions. Partial support was found for both hypotheses. Relatively harsher (d = .49) peer first impressions were found among domestic violence witnesses. Domestic violence (d = .58) and parental physical abuse (d = .49) victims overestimated peer ratings. Social anxiety during peer interactions was higher among women exposed to either form of childhood maltreatment. Men from violent families viewed themselves less favorably than their peers (r = .22, p < .05). These results further implicate childhood maltreatment as a contributing factor in peer distancing and rejection.     

An Examination of Disclosure,Mental Health Treatment use,and Posttraumatic Growth Among College Women Who Experienced Sexual Victimization

Few investigations have sought to identify factors associated with posttraumatic growth among survivors of sexual victimization. The present study examined the relationship between posttraumatic growth, disclosure, and mental health treatment use following sexual assault. Undergraduate female psychology students (N = 85), who reported a prior history of sexual victimization, completed measures assessing trauma exposure, posttraumatic growth, disclosure, and mental health treatment use. Results revealed that degree of disclosure of the assault to support sources and mental health treatment use following sexual assault was related to increased posttraumatic growth. Findings have valuable implications for treatment interventions for survivors of sexual trauma.     

Survivors’ Advice to Service Providers: How to Best Serve Survivors of Sexual Assault

Recognizing the relatively low rate at which sexual assault survivors seek services, researchers in the last decade have turned their attention to better understanding survivors’ experiences with victim services. Surprisingly, limited research has directly asked sexual assault survivors for recommendations on how to improve victim services, including both criminal justice and community-based services. The current study builds on the existing literature to gather input from women survivors that can translate into ways to improve victim services. As part of a larger longitudinal study, the current investigation asked 224 ethnically diverse adult (aged 18–62) women survivors of recent sexual assault to provide recommendations for how victim services can best serve survivors of sexual assault at multiple time points. Nearly all women in the study (91%) offered specific recommendations on how to improve victim services. Recommendations included ensuring availability of a female provider, improving communication with survivors as well as within and between service providers, helping survivors obtain resources, believing and not blaming survivors, demonstrating greater understanding of trauma-related responses and approaching survivors with greater compassion, and implementing better training on effectively working with survivors. Implications for victim service provision are discussed.     

Factors Associated with Peer Sexual Harassment Victimization Among Taiwanese Adolescents

This study examined the individual and interpersonal factors of peer sexual harassment victimization among Taiwanese adolescents. A random sample of 1,376 7th to 9th grade middle school students in Taichung City, Taiwan, completed questionnaires about their demographics, delinquency, peer/teacher interaction, and experience of being sexually harassed by peers. Approximately 25.4% of the respondents had suffered peer sexual harassment during the previous semester. Boys reported more exposure to sexual harassment than did girls. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed separately for boys and girls. Significant risk factors of peer sexual harassment victimization for both genders included being bullied by peers and teacher maltreatment. Boys’ sexual harassment victimization was also associated with their involvement in fights. Peer relationship problems contributed to girls’ sexual harassment victimization. These findings suggested the relevance of a hostile school climate to peer sexual harassment and the gender differences in risk factors.     

Asian American Women Sexual Assault Survivors’ Choice of Coping Strategies: The Role of Post-Assault Cognitive Responses

ABSTRACT

Even though approximately one in three Asian American (AA) and Pacific Islander women experience sexual assault victimization, there is a dearth of literature examining how AA women sexual assault survivors cope with this traumatic experience. This study examined AA female sexual assault survivors’ choice of coping strategies post-assault and how their cognitive responses toward sexual assault victimization (e.g., attributions of self-blame, perceived control over the recovery process) relate to their use of coping strategies. Using the AA subsets of two large community studies, a total of 64 AA women ages 18 to 58 with unwanted sexual experiences after the age of 14 years were included in the analyses. Results indicated that AA survivors used Acceptance and Self-Distraction the most to cope with sexual assault. In addition, those who perceived they had less control over their recovery process tended to use more maladaptive coping strategies, such as substance abuse and behavioral disengagement (e.g., giving up). The discussion includes clinical implications and recommendations for using language, modalities, and foci of interventions that are consistent with clients’ and their families’ worldviews (e.g., indirect inquiries, solution-focused).     

Building social support for adolescents with suicidal ideation: implications for school guidance and counselling

This study involved interviews with 13 adolescents with high levels of suicidal ideation. It aimed to understand how these adolescents perceived their family, school and peer relationships, and how they perceived these systems as their support. Comparison between adolescents with severe and mild suicidal ideation showed that the family, school and peers could act as effective support systems in times of stress. A close interpersonal relationship was the key factor in unlocking these support systems. The school as a support system was highlighted. Implications for school guidance and counselling to strengthen the social support of adolescents and adolescents' resiliency were discussed.     

Help-seeking for AIDS-related concerns: A comparison of gay men with various HIV diagnoses

Examined help-seeking and psychological distress among four groups of gay men (30 AIDS-diagnosed, 107 HIV-seropositive, 149 HIV-seronegative, 244 untested) in the AIDS Behavioral Research Project, a longitudinal survey of San Francisco gay men. The men reported high levels of anxiety, depression, and help-seeking from their social networks. AIDS-diagnosed and HIV-positives reported the most AIDS worry and were the most likely to seek help. High percentages of AIDS-diagnosed men sought help from all sources (peers, professionals, family), whereas nondiagnosed men were more likely to seek help from peers. Regardless of the men's HIV status, peers were perceived to be the most helpful source. Family members were less likely sought and perceived as least helpful. The strengths and limitations of peers as social support providers for AIDS-related concerns are discussed, including implications for the design of community programs to enhance the abilities of peer helpers.     

Experience of a Lifetime: Study Abroad,Trauma, and Institutional Betrayal

This study is the first to expand the investigation of study-abroad risks to include a range of traumatic experiences for male and female students and to examine effects of institutional betrayal (i.e., an institution’s failure to prevent trauma or support survivors). In an online survey of 173 university students who had studied abroad, many respondents (45.44%, n = 79) reported exposure to at least 1 traumatic experience while abroad, most frequently natural disasters, sexual assault, and unwanted sexual experiences. Of students exposed to potentially traumatic events, more than one third (35.44%, n = 28) also reported at least 1 form of related institutional betrayal, which uniquely correlated with posttraumatic distress in some participants, when controlling for lifetime trauma history.     

Disclosing Sexual Assault Within Social Networks: A Mixed‐Method Investigation

Most survivors of sexual assault disclose their experiences within their social networks, and these disclosure decisions can have important implications for their entry into formal systems and well‐being, but no research has directly examined these networks as a strategy to understand disclosure decisions. Using a mixed‐method approach that combined survey data, social network analysis, and interview data, we investigate whom, among potential informal responders in the social networks of college students who have experienced sexual assault, survivors contact regarding their assault, and how survivors narrate the role of networks in their decisions about whom to contact. Quantitative results suggest that characteristics of survivors, their social networks, and members of these networks are associated with disclosure decisions. Using data from social network analysis, we identified that survivors tended to disclose to a smaller proportion of their network when many network members had relationships with each other or when the network had more subgroups. Our qualitative analysis helps to contextualize these findings.     

Intimate Partner Violence Victimization among Heterosexual,Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual College Students: The Role of Pro-Abuse Peer Support

Most studies of peer support for intimate partner violence (IPV) at U.S. institutions of higher learning focused solely on male assaults on heterosexual women. As well, the bulk of this work only examined how all-male social networks perpetuate and legitimate this behavior. Using recent data from a survey administered at a large U.S. residential university, the main objective of this paper is to help fill a research gap by presenting findings on (1) how having peers who have perpetrated dating abuse and (2) peers’ encouragement to be abusive to dates contributes to IPV victimization in a campus lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) community. The results show that LGB students report a higher rate of such victimization than heterosexual students and the two aforementioned types of pro-abuse peer support significantly predict victimization among both sexual orientation groups.     

Children’s Elementary School Social Experience and Executive Functions Development: Introduction to a Special Section

Children’s executive functions, encompassing inhibitory control, working memory and attention are vital for their self-regulation. With the transition to formal schooling, children need to learn to manage their emotions and behavior in a new and complex social environment that with age increases in the intensity of social interactions with peers and teachers. Stronger executive functions skills facilitate children’s social development. In addition, new experiences in the social environments of school also may influence executive function development. The focus of this special section is on this potential impact of elementary school social experiences with peers and teacher on the development of children’s executive functions. The collection of papers encompass various aspects of peer and teacher social environments, and cover broad as well as specific facets and measures of executive functions including neural responses. The collection of papers sample developmental periods that span preschool through mid-adolescence. In this introduction, we summarize and highlight the main findings of each of the papers, organized around social interactions with peers and interactions with teachers. We conclude our synopsis with implications for future research, and a specific focus on prevention and intervention.     

Delinquency,substance abuse,and risk taking in middle-class adolescents

Risk-taking attitudes are strong predictors of delinquency and substance abuse among male and female middle-class adolescents. Risk-taking measures make strong and independent contributions to predicting self-reported delinquency and drug and alcohol use, even taking into account bonding to family and school and attitudes toward one's religious faith and employment. A measure of involvement with a delinquent peer group also predicts delinquency and drug and alcohol use. Moreover, those adolescents who are more likely to be involved in delinquent activity, or to be heavier users of substances, are less likely to turn to parents or formal helpers (e.g., counselors, teachers, etc.), and more likely to turn to peers for help. Delinquency and substance abuse prevention programs should take into account adolescent risk taking and should affect peer group norms if they are to be effective.     

Gender’s Role in Misperceptions of Peers’ Sexual Motives

The sexual double standard influences men’s and women’s sexual attitudes and behavior, leading men and women to consider distinct sexual motives, or reasons whether or not to engage in sexual intercourse. The goal of the present paper was to document how the sexual double standard shapes perceptions of peers’ sexual motives. We build on past research by using open-ended questions and measuring perceptions of both same-gender and other-gender peers. The sample included 154 heterosexual college students (50 % female, 49 % European American, 25 % Latino American, 26 % African American) recruited via probability sampling. When we compared perceptions of men’s and women’s sexual motives, we found that participants seemed to rely on the sexual double standard. Participants were more likely to attribute a female-stereotyped motive (e.g., romantic relationship characteristics, feeling “ready”, emotional investment) and less likely to attribute a male-stereotyped motive (“easy”, arousal, physical appearance) to female peers than to male peers. However, when we compared participants’ own motives to perceptions of their peers’ motives, participants overestimated male-stereotyped motives and underestimated female-stereotyped motives in peers, regardless of peer gender, possibly in congruence with stereotypes of hookup culture. These findings demonstrate that, although individuals sometimes rely on the sexual double standard to attribute sexual motives to others, misperceptions of peers’ sexual motives may also be influenced by stereotypes of hookup culture. These misperceptions contribute to pluralistic ignorance that may influence college students’ sexual behaviors.