Unwanted teenage pregnancies: incidence, interpretation, and intervention.

North American and western European cultures are more permissive than they were before World War II about the increased incidence of teen sexual activity. Societies may be more open and teens are having more premarital sex than they used to, but they surely are not using contraception as often as they should. As such, there is a great deal of unintended and unwanted teenage pregnancies, especially in the US. Even the threat of contracting and/or transmitting HIV has not caused heterosexual youths to change their sexual or contraceptive behaviors. The authors conceptualize explanations for this lack of adolescent behavioral change, including procedures designed to identify deficiencies and to bring about necessary changes in contraception-relevant information, motivation, behavioral skills, and situational constraints. Examples of successful intervention programs are outlined. Sections consider the incidence of premarital intercourse, contraceptive use, and unwanted pregnancies; contraceptive neglect; unintended and unwanted pregnancies; and why teenagers have unprotected sexual intercourse. The conceptual framework of intervening to prevent unwanted teenage pregnancies is presented in sections on providing improved contraceptive information, increasing precontraceptive motivation, improving contraceptive skills, altering situational factors which inhibit contraception, and evaluation research.     

Girls’ Stories About Their First Sexual Intercourse: Readiness,Affection and Experience-Seeking in the Process of Growing into Womanhood

This study introduces Finnish girls’ views on and explanations for the factors contributing to their decisions concerning their first sexual intercourse. The data consists of personal interviews with girls aged 16–19, and stories produced through process drama. The analysis was conducted by narrative methods. Two model story categories of the first sexual intercourse stories were constructed: the close relationship and the casual relationship. The close relationship category consists of elements of two sub-stories: the conventional and the planned love story. The casual relationship category consists of elements of the tragic love, the teenage party and the experience-seeking sub-stories. Being prepared for sex was a shared plot element in all of the first intercourse stories. In the close relationship category the other major explanatory factors were mutual love and a steady relationship. In the casual relationship category the explanatory factors were girl’s affection for the partner without a relationship or getting experience, respectively. The girls’ agency in the use of contraception and the intercourse itself differed between the sub-stories. Girls regarded intercourse as an important step towards their womanhood. Those who work with teenagers should be aware of these stories in order to reinforce those stories where teenagers are active agents.     

Mexican-American adolescent sexuality and sexual knowledge: an exploratory study

This article reports the findings of a study designed to examine the sexual knowledge, attitudes, and practices of low-income Mexican- American adolescents. The participants in the study were all about to begin a sex education program in a community health organization in East Los Angeles. The study involved 84 adolescents aged 14-19, 97% of who identified themselves as Mexican-American (the remainder identified themselves as Latino). 51 of the subjects were female and 33 male. The participants completed a 43-item questionnaire concerning demographics, sexual experience and contraceptive use, knowledge of birth control methods, and attitudes towards sexuality and birth control. Only 18 (21%) of the subjects indicated ever having sex. But among this group, 83% reported not using contraception during their last intercourse, and 61% reported never using contraception. Only 22% reported using contraception regularly. Concerning the knowledge of different birth control methods,many of the participants were able to list several methods, but their responses indicated a lack of accurate and specific knowledge about contraceptive methods. In addition to the 43-item questionnaire, 27 of the subjects also completed a sexual and contraceptive knowledge questionnaire. The topics included contraceptive effectiveness, the menstrual cycle, and fertilization. The scores on the questionnaire were low, with an average score of 33% of correct answers. Finally, all 84 participants responded to a sexual attitude questionnaire, which revealed a generally traditional attitude toward the importance of have children, virginity, and the relationship between sex and love.     

Sexual Health Information Networks: What are Urban African American Youth Learning?

This qualitative study examined sexual health information networks among urban African American youth living in low-income communities. The authors identified sources, message content, and utility of messages about sex and sexual health in a sample of 15-17-year olds (N = 81). Youth received sexual health information from a variety of sources. Messages from parents and sex education had high utility, whereas messages from the Internet and religion had low utility. Four information network patterns were identified, suggesting considerable variation in how youth are socialized regarding sex. Findings suggest that sexual information networks have the potential to affect sexual health and development.     

Premarital Sexual Debut in Emerging Adults of South Asian Descent: The Role of Parental Sexual Socialization and Sexual Attitudes

Ethnicity is an important factor in premarital sexual debut as norms regarding appropriate sexual conduct outside of marriage vary considerably across cultures. Emerging adults of South Asian descent living in Western societies are an important demographic group, yet little is known about the factors that contribute to variations in their premarital sexual debut. The goal of this study was to investigate the contributions of parental sexual socialization and attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors to premarital sexual debut in emerging adults of South Asian descent. University students of South Asian descent (N = 87) aged 18–24 completed a questionnaire containing measures of parental attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors, their own attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors, and experience with oral sex and intercourse. Mediation analyses showed that perceptions of mothers’ as more permissive toward premarital sexual behaviors was associated with respondents reporting more permissive attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors, which in turn was associated with a greater likelihood of having engaged in oral sex and intercourse. No significant effect was found for fathers. These findings suggest that parental sexual socialization may influence emerging adults of South Asian descent’s decision to engage in premarital sexual behaviors through the process of sexual attitudes formation.     

Sexual behavior in Spanish adolescents of divorced parents

Marital breakup has been associated with numerous behavioral problems in children, such as sexual risk behaviors. This research is the first to examine sexual behaviors of Spanish adolescents related to whether their parents were married or divorced. Participants were 342 boys and girls aged between 14 and 18 years. The sample provided confidential information about their sexual behavior and birth control methods. Significant differences were only found in percentages of adolescents who had engaged in mutual masturbation, intercourse, or oral sex, and who had practiced these sexual relations in the last six months, in both cases, they were higher when the parents had broken their marital relationship. Regarding adolescents of divorced parents, engaging in intercourse is more likely in older teenagers who live with a stepparent. Moreover, older adolescents who were younger when parents divorced and who live in a reconstituted family, have more sexual partners. These and other findings are discussed.     

Information and attitudes about HIV/AIDS in Portuguese adolescents: state of art and changes in a four year period

The incidence of infection with HIV/AIDS among the heterosexual population has been increasing in young adults. The goal of this research was to deepen knowledge of preventive sexual behavior in Portuguese adolescents, including knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS, and assessing whether they changed from 2002 to 2006. Data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire from the Portuguese sample of the Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC), a collaborative WHO study. The study provides national representative data of 7093 Portuguese adolescents, randomly chosen from those attending 8th and 10th grade of high school. Results showed there was an increase in the age of first sexual intercourse and a decrease in the number of teenagers who reported having had sexual intercourse, also in the level of information regarding HIV/AIDS transmission/prevention and in positive attitudes towards people with HIV/AIDS. In general, adolescents have good knowledge about how to protect themselves from becoming infected. However, comparing to 2002, there was a reduction of knowledge and consequent increase in the doubts regarding HIV/AIDS. Given the incipient state of sex education in 2006, the results cannot be attributed to sex education, but they will be relevant for comparison with the 2010 HBSC results.     

American menstrual expressions

Girls tend to learn menstrual euphemisms at menarche, usually from mothers and female friends. Boys usually report learning them in high school or college from male peers. Women often view the terms as a secret language for use in the company of males or others in whose presence a straightforward statement about menstruation is deemed embarrassing. Among men, menstrual euphemisms tend to have sexual and derogatory connotations. Interpretations which accompany these folk expressions are presented to illustrate general aspects of menstrual and sexual socialization.     

Indian Adolescent Sexuality: Sexual Knowledge,Attitudes, and Behaviors Among Urban Youth

With emerging westernization, there is growing concern about sexual promiscuity and changing attitudes toward sexuality. A questionnaire was administered to 182 adolescents from the city of Mumbai in the age group of 17–21 years in order to examine their knowledge about crucial aspects of sexuality and their source of sex related information. The survey also accessed attitudes regarding sex education, premarital sex and homosexuality, as well as sexual behaviors engaged in by the youth. Results showed that sexual knowledge about physiology of sexual response, conception, and pregnancy was less than other areas such as masturbation and contraception. Peers, books, and magazines were the most frequently used source of sex information. Boys reported more liberal attitudes and more frequent sexual behaviors than girls. Implications of the results in terms of access to accurate information, communication about sexual issues, and health policy reforms are discussed.     

The Making of a Sexual Being in Ghana: The State,Religion and the Influence of Society as Agents of Sexual Socialization

With the aim of generating in-depth information on society’s expectations and views on sexual expression in Ghana, we present findings on what was expected of the state, religion, and the influence of society on sexual socialization in Ghana. As a society, our need to break the culture of silence about sex cannot be overemphasized. Our study is important against a background that in Sub-Saharan African, HIV and AIDS is mostly spread through sexual intercourse, and that the region bears a disproportionate large percentage of the world’s HIV and AIDS burden. Although Ghana has a 2009 adult (15+ years) prevalence rate of 1.6% and a prevalence rate of 1.9% for persons 15–49 years old, some regions and sentinel sites show rather high rates, making HIV and AIDS issues of high concern nationally. Respondents from the general public, key informants and special groups across all three ecological zones of Ghana were purposively selected. All the interviewees agreed that in Ghana fidelity in all sexual relationships is highly valued and expected. However, there is gender discrimination in the application of such social norms of fidelity, in favor of males. Amongst the three agents of socialization studied, religion seemed to exert the most influence. Modernity interwoven with Christianity seem to have taken a great toll on such norms of sexual socialization.     

Men's and women's attitudes and beliefs about the menstrual cycle

Recent analyses of menstrual distress have emphasized sociocultural influences. Yet beliefs and attitudes of men—an important socialization force in the lives of women—have received little attention. In the present study, 239 students (156 females and 83 males) from three colleges filled out a survey on expectations for menstrual and premenstrual symptoms, attitudes about mensturation, sources of menstrual-related information, and effects of menstruation upon daily activities. The major findings are as follows: First, although both males and females believed women experience certain cycle-related symptoms, females reported that women experience more severe menstrual and premenstrual symptoms (when compared to intermenstrual ones) than males reported, while males believed women experience more severe menstrual than premenstrual symptoms than females believed. Second, males learned less about menstruation from the majority of possible informational sources and rated most sources as more negative than did the females. Third, males believed that menstruation had more of an effect on women's moods and had a more debilitating effect on women's lives than did females. Fourth, females rated menstruation as more bothersome than did males. Fifth, more males believed their mothers experienced menstrual irritability and moodiness, while more females believed their mothers experienced swelling. The findings are discussed in terms of the role of socialization and the type of information imparted to males and females in America today.     

SEXUAL SOCIALIZATION DIFFERENCES BY GENDER, GREEK MEMBERSHIP, ETHNICITY, AND RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND

Socialization theories have included parents and peers as important determinants of the initial sexual standards and sexual behavior of teenagers and young adults. The purpose of the research reported here was to examine how parental and peer sexual socialization influences are related to gender, ethnicity, religious background, and college membership in a fraternity or sorority. A sample that included a majority of Caucasian university students and about 13% Asian and 7% Black students completed questionnaires both as entering first-year students and as seniors. Results indicated that compared to women, men continue to experience a more permissive sexual socialization from both parents and peers. Greek membership was associated with a more permissive socialization from peers but not parents. Asian students reported a more restrictive socialization than Blacks or Caucasians. Findings are discussed with respect to concerns of social scientists regarding the influence of fraternities and differential gender socialization.     

Family functioning and early onset of sexual intercourse in Latino adolescents

The purpose of this study was to identify factors associated with early onset of sexual intercourse. Within an ecological system's conceptual framework, familial factors associated with early onset of sexual activity were identified in a sample of 425 adolescents from San Juan metro area schools. Measures included questions about sexual activity, sexual permissiveness, and such familial variables as: discipline, parental supervision, and parental support. Significant relationships were observed between early onset of sexual intercourse and parental supervision, discipline, parental support, and parents' marital status. Results suggest the key role of parents and family in prevention of HIV-risk behaviors among adolescents in terms of delaying sexual onset. Overall, the study described youths who postponed sexual activity as having greater support, supervision, and parental involvement.     

The pleasures of sex: An empirical investigation

This study examined associations between the pleasurability of various sexual activities and behavioural experience with these activities. Participants were 145 female and 78 male undergraduates. Participants rated the pleasurability of various sexual activities (vaginal intercourse, anal intercourse, receiving oral sex, performing oral sex, masturbation by a partner, and self-masturbation) and answered questions about their experience with these sexual activities. Vaginal intercourse, receiving oral sex, and being masturbated by a partner received the highest,pleasure ratings. For behaviours other than vaginal intercourse and receiving oral sex, pleasure ratings were significantly higher among respondents who had engaged in the activity. Pleasure ratings for several different sexual behaviours were intercorrelated. Participants who scored high on a pleasure index were more sexually experienced, engaged in more frequent sexual activity, and reported having more sex partners. Results are interpreted within the context of an evolutionary theory which suggests that pleasure motivates sexual behaviour.     

Effect of sex education on the sexual and contraceptive practices of female teenagers in Mexico City

After reviewing the literature on the relationship between sex education and sexual and contraceptive behavior, the National Research Council (1987) recently concluded that the existing evaluation of the effects of sex education on sexual and contraceptive practice is helpful but not sufficient. 1 possible explanation for the different results obtained are the diverse sociodemographic characteristics of the sample(s) of teens under consideration. Another aspect which might account for the differences seen in the literature focuses on the areas covered in the course. In Mexico, no studies have been undertaken which deal with the relationship between sex education and sexual and contraceptive behaviors. A study carried out with 392 adolescent females ages 16-17 of lower and middle lower socioeconomic status showed that merely attending a sex education course did not affect the initiation or continuation of sexual activity, contraceptive behavior, or even the perception of accessibility to contraception. Providing information on sexuality, partner relationships, and where contraception can be obtained does not appear to have any effect on sexual activity. Receiving information on pregnancy prevention and obtaining contraceptives was found to be related to contraceptive use. Although less dramatic, information about partner relationships and sexuality produced increases in contraceptive use.     

Preventing adolescent pregnancy with social and cognitive skills

A 15-session sex education program was delivered by teachers to 586 10th graders using techniques based on social learning theory, including modeling, in-class and out-of-class practice of skills for abstaining from sexual intercourse, and for contraception. Knowledge about reproduction and birth control, intentions to use skills to avoid pregnancy, and communication with parents about pregnancy prevention were significantly greater at posttest and 6-month follow-up for the trained group than for the control group. Members of the trained group tended to use birth control more often, especially those who started to have sexual intercourse subsequent to the program. No differences in the frequency of sexual intercourse, pregnancy scares, or pregnancies were found. Satisfaction with the program was high. Although skill training by itself may not be sufficient to significantly prevent pregnancies, this program offers promise of being a useful component of combined school, home, and community activities to prevent pregnancy.     

Association Between Life Satisfaction and Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors Among Adolescents

Relationships between perceived life satisfaction and sexual risk-taking behaviors were examined in a statewide sample of public high school students (n = 4,758) using the self-report CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Adjusted polychotomous logistic regression analyses and multivariate models (via SUDAAN) constructed separately, revealed a significant race by gender interaction for each race-gender group. Age of first intercourse (13), two or more lifetime sexual intercourse partners, alcohol/drug use before last intercourse, no use of contraception at last intercourse, being forced to have sex, forcing someone to have sex, and having beaten up a date in the last 12 months and having been beaten up by a date (in last 12 months) were associated (p = .05) with reduced life satisfaction. Measures of life satisfaction as a component of comprehensive assessments of adolescent sexual risk-taking behaviors in fieldwork, research, and program-evaluation efforts should be considered.