Cross-modal working memory binding and L1-L2 word learning

The ability to create temporary binding representations of information from different sources in working memory has recently been found to relate to the development of monolingual word recognition in children. The current study explored this possible relationship in an adult word-learning context. We assessed whether the relationship between cross-modal working memory binding and lexical development would be observed in the learning of associations between unfamiliar spoken words and their semantic referents, and whether it would vary across experimental conditions in first- and second-language word learning. A group of English monolinguals were recruited to learn 24 spoken disyllable Mandarin Chinese words in association with either familiar or novel objects as semantic referents. They also took a working memory task in which their ability to temporarily bind auditory-verbal and visual information was measured. Participants’ performance on this task was uniquely linked to their learning and retention of words for both novel objects and for familiar objects. This suggests that, at least for spoken language, cross-modal working memory binding might play a similar role in second language-like (i.e., learning new words for familiar objects) and in more native-like situations (i.e., learning new words for novel objects). Our findings provide new evidence for the role of cross-modal working memory binding in L1 word learning and further indicate that early stages of picture-based word learning in L2 might rely on similar cognitive processes as in L1.     

The origin of exemplar effects in rule-driven categorization

S. W. Allen and L. R. Brooks (1991) have shown that exemplar memory can affect categorization even when participants are provided with a classification rule. G. Regehr and L. R. Brooks (1993) argued that stimuli must be individuated for such effects to occur. In this study, the authors further analyze the conditions that yield exemplar effects in this rule application paradigm. The results of Experiments 1-3 show that interchangeable attributes, which are not part of the rule, influence categorization only when attention is explicitly drawn on them. Experiment 4 shows that exemplar effects can occur in an incidental learning condition, whether stimulus individuation is preserved or not. The authors conclude that the influence of exemplar learning in rule-driven categorization stems from the attributes specified in the rule or in the instructions, not from the stimulus gestalts.     

Visual and phonological components of working memory in children

Previous studies have shown that young children's immediate memory for a short series of drawings of objects is mediated by a visual component of working memory, whereas older children rely chiefly upon a phonological component. Three experiments investigated the hypothesis that older children rely also, but to a lesser extent, on visual working memory. Experiment 1 confirmed previous evidence that 11-year-olds' memory is disrupted by phonemic similarity of object names, but is unaffected by visual similarity of the objects themselves. However, when articulatory suppression was used to prevent phonological coding, levels of recall were sensitive to visual rather than phonemic similarity. Experiment 2 compared the effects of interpolating an auditory-verbal or a visual postlist task on memory for drawings viewed either with or without suppression. The visual task had a clear disruptive effect only in the suppression condition, where it interfered selectively with recall of the most recent item. Experiment 3 compared the effects of interpolating an auditory-verbal or a mixed-modality (visual-auditory) postlist task when subjects were not required to suppress. There was greater interference from the mixed-modality task, and this effect was confined to the last item presented. These experiments are taken as confirming the presence of a small but reliable contribution from visual memory in 11-year-old children's recall. As in younger children, visual working memory in 11-year-olds is sensitive to visual similarity and is responsible for a final-item visual recency effect. The results also show that older children's use of visual working memory is usually masked by the more pervasive phonological component of recall. Some implications for the structure of working memory and its development are discussed.     

A note on DeCaro, Thomas, and Beilock (2008): Further data demonstrate complexities in the assessment of information-integration category learning

DeCaro et al. [DeCaro, M. S., Thomas, R. D., & Beilock, S. L. (2008). Individual differences in category learning: Sometimes less working memory capacity is better than more. Cognition, 107(1), 284-294] explored how individual differences in working memory capacity differentially mediate the learning of distinct category structures. Specifically, their results showed that greater working memory capacity facilitates the learning of novel category structures that are verbalisable and discoverable through logical reasoning processes. Conversely, however, greater working memory was shown to impede the learning of novel category structures thought to be non-verbalisable, inaccessible to conscious reasoning and discoverable only through implicit (procedural) learning of appropriate stimulus-category responses. The present paper calls into question the specific nature of the category learning tasks used, in particular their ability to discriminate between different modes of category learning.     

Inattention,working memory,and academic achievement in adolescents referred for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

This study investigated the role of inattention and working memory in predicting academic achievement in 145 adolescents aged 13 to 18 referred for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Path analysis was used to examine whether auditory-verbal and visual-spatial working memory would mediate the relationships between classroom inattention symptoms and achievement outcomes. Results provide support for the mediational model. Behavioral inattention significantly predicted both auditory-verbal and visual-spatial working memory performance. Auditory-verbal working memory was strongly associated with adolescents' achievement in reading and mathematics, while visual-spatial working memory was only associated with achievement in mathematics. The path from inattention symptoms to reading was partially mediated by the working memory variables, but the path from inattention to mathematics was not mediated by working memory. The proposed model demonstrated a good fit to the data and explained a substantial amount of variance in the adolescents' achievement outcomes. These findings imply that working memory is a risk factor for academic failure for adolescents with attentional problems.     

Cognitive processing in literate and illiterate subjects: a review of some recent behavioral and functional neuroimaging data

The study of illiterate subjects, which for specific socio-cultural reasons did not have the opportunity to acquire basic reading and writing skills, represents one approach to study the interaction between neurobiological and cultural factors in cognitive development and the functional organization of the human brain. In addition the naturally occurring illiteracy may serve as a model for studying the influence of alphabetic orthography on auditory-verbal language. In this paper we have reviewed some recent behavioral and functional neuroimaging data indicating that learning an alphabetic written language modulates the auditory-verbal language system in a non-trivial way and provided support for the hypothesis that the functional architecture of the brain is modulated by literacy. We have also indicated that the effects of literacy and formal schooling is not limited to language related skills but appears to affect also other cognitive domains. In particular, we indicate that formal schooling influences 2D but not 3D visual naming skills. We have also pointed to the importance of using ecologically relevant tasks when comparing literate and illiterate subjects. We also demonstrate the applicability of a network approach in elucidating differences in the functional organization of the brain between groups. The strength of such an approach is the ability to study patterns of interactions between functionally specialized brain regions and the possibility to compare such patterns of brain interactions between groups or functional states. This complements the more commonly used activation approach to functional neuroimaging data, which characterize functionally specialized regions, and provides important data characterizing the functional interactions between these regions.     

Involvement of the insular cortex in retention of conditioned taste aversion is not time dependent

In fear-associated learning paradigms, hippocampal lesions induce memory deficits of recent but not remote memories, while amygdala lesions produce retention deficits irrespective of the age of the memory. In conditioned taste aversion (CTA), non-hippocampal mediated learning paradigm, the insular vortex (IC) has shown to have a crucial role in consolidation and storage of CTA memory. Due to the functional and anatomical similarities to the hippocampus, a time dependent role of the IC in CTA retention cannot be ruled out. To test whether the IC shows a time dependent role in CTA memory retention, male Wistar rats were CTA trained on saccharin 0.1% (LiCl 0.15M, 2% b/w, 40 min after drinking) and lesioned with ibotenic acid (200-300 nL, 5mg/mL) unilaterally into the IC 1 week or bilaterally 1 or 6 weeks after CTA. CTA memory was completely disrupted in both bilateral lesion groups but unaffected in the unilateral lesioned group. The resulting preference was comparable to that of the bilaterally IC lesioned animals exposed to the taste for the first time, proving that in these animals a complete amnesic state was achieved. Bilaterally IC lesioned rats showed normal discrimination between preferred (sucrose 5%) and non-preferred (quinone) tastes. Our data indicates that the involvement of the IC in CTA is not time dependent and that CTA memories are stored in each hemisphere separately.     

Two modes of transfer in artificial grammar learning

Participants can transfer grammatical knowledge acquired implicitly in 1 vocabulary to new sequences instantiated in both the same and a novel vocabulary. Two principal theories have been advanced to account for these effects. One suggests that sequential dependencies form the basis for cross-domain transfer (e.g., Z. Dienes, G. T. M. Altmann, & S. J. Gao, 1999). Another argues that a form of episodic memory known as abstract analogy is sufficient (e.g., L. R. Brooks & J. R. Vokey, 1991). Three experiments reveal the contributions of the 2. In Experiment 1 sequential dependencies form the only basis for transfer. Experiment 2 demonstrates that this process is impaired by a change in the distributional properties of the language. Experiment 3 demonstrates that abstract analogy of repetition structure is relatively immune to such a change. These findings inform theories of artificial grammar learning and the transfer of grammatical knowledge.     

Trace and contextual fear conditioning is enhanced in mice lacking the α4 subunit of the GABAA receptor

The GABA_AR α4 subunit is highly expressed in the dentate gyrus region of the hippocampus at predominantly extra synaptic locations where, along with the GABA_AR δ subunit, it forms GABA_A receptors that mediate a tonic inhibitory current. The present study was designed to test hippocampus-dependent and hippocampus-independent learning and memory in GABA_AR α4 subunit-deficient mice using trace and delay fear conditioning, respectively. Mice were of a mixed C57Bl/6J X 129S1/X1 genetic background from α4 heterozygous breeding pairs. The α4-knockout mice showed enhanced trace and contextual fear conditioning consistent with an enhancement of hippocampus-dependent learning and memory. These enhancements were sex-dependent, similar to previous studies in GABA_AR δ knockout mice, but differences were present in both males and females. The convergent findings between α4 and δ knockout mice suggests that tonic inhibition mediated by α4βδ GABA_A receptors negatively modulates learning and memory processes and provides further evidence that tonic inhibition makes important functional contributions to learning and behavior.     

On the timescale of stimulus-based action–effect learning

When performing an action, people pick up associations between their actions and the resulting consequences of that action, a phenomenon that has been termed response (R)–effect (E) learning. In the present study, we investigated incidental R–E learning in a forced-choice—that is, a stimulus (S)-based—acquisition mode. Specifically, the study examined at which timescale R–E learning evolves—that is, how many encounters are actually needed to form stable R–E associations. The learning of R–E associations was assessed in a subsequent test phase via effect-based response priming. Experiment 1 tested 4 different numbers of S–R–E repetitions for a 2–2–2 S–R–E mapping. Experiment 2 disentangled the contributions of S–E and R–E associations to the facilitating impact of effect-based response priming by means of a 4–2–4 S–R–E mapping. Experiment 3 investigated whether R–E associations can be picked up even when a given E cannot be unequivocally predicted based on the antecedent S in case of inconsistent S–R–E couplings. Together, the results of the present study clearly show that R–E learning occurs in a stimulus-based action mode and that it evolves very rapidly after only 12 S–R–E repetitions. Moreover, the present findings suggest that at least in this initial phase of learning, complete S–R–E consistency seems to be relevant for R–E learning.     

Four-year-old children's visual attention in direct and observational learning

The study was designed to compare direct learning (learning by performing) with observational learning (learning by observing) on a memory task that assessed 4-year-old children's selective attention. 17 pairs of kindergarteners of the same sex (aged 3 yr., 8 mo. to 4 yr., 4 mo.) participated in a central-incidental memory task. Data from a retention test indicated that the performers' mean central learning score was higher than their mean incidental score, while the observers showed no difference between their central and incidental learning scores, performers had a higher mean central learning score than observers. On the other hand, the frequency of the subjects' overt visual attention to the task in their learning phase was also counted. Both observers and performers showed high frequency of visual attention.     

嵌套范式下视空工作记忆对基于规则类别学习

基于COVIS模型与认知加工阶段假设,通过2个实验探讨嵌套范式下, 视空工作记忆对基于规则类别学习的影响。实验1采用类别学习中嵌套视空工作记忆的范式,结果发现视空工作记忆削弱基于规则类别学习成绩,与COVIS模型预测相一致。实验2则采用视空工作记忆中嵌套类别学习任务的范式,结果却发现视空工作记忆对基于规则类别学习的影响消失。实验结果表明嵌套范式下视空工作记忆的位置影响基于规则类别学习,初步验证了类别学习存在多个认知加工阶段的假设,视空工作记忆主要影响基于规则类别学习中规则的发现和检验阶段。     

Changing likes and dislikes through the back door: The US-revaluation effect

US-revaluation refers to the observation that subsequent changes in the valence of an unconditioned stimulus (US) after pairing it with a neutral, conditioned stimulus (CS) also changes the valence of the associated CS. Experiment 1 found evidence for the US-revaluation effect using an unobtrusive measure of evaluation. However, US-revaluation effects were more pronounced for positive-to-negative compared to negative-to-positive revaluations. Experiment 2 replicated this finding for self-reported evaluations, further showing that US-revaluation effects are stable over time and independent of explicit memory for the revaluating information. Using a modified paradigm, Experiment 3 ruled out method-related explanations for these findings and showed that changes in CS evaluations are correlated with parallel changes in US evaluations. These findings encourage the view of evaluative conditioning as an instance of stimulus–stimulus (S–S) rather than stimulus-response (S–R) learning. Implications for basic and applied research are discussed.     

Memory in pediatric patients undergoing conscious sedation for aversive medical procedures.

This study investigated preserved memory in 26 pediatric cancer patients (65% boys, 77% Caucasian, mean age = 12.5 years) undergoing midazolam-induced conscious sedation during painful medical procedures to treat hematological or oncological diseases. The sedative midazolam had a significant anterograde amnesic effect on participants' performance on a visual recognition (explicit) memory task but not on a visual perceptual facilitation (implicit) memory task. That implicit memory scores were relatively unaffected while explicit memory scores deteriorated significantly indicates that leaning occurred while participants were sedated, even when participants did not recollect the learning event. These findings, which replicate those of M. R. Polster, R. A. McCarthy, G. O'Sullivan, P. A. Gray, and G. R. Park (1993) in a study of adults, have implications for the development and treatment of conditioned anxiety reactions associated with aversive medical procedures.     

Visual pattern memory requires foraging function in the central complex of Drosophila

The role of the foraging (for) gene, which encodes a cyclic guanosine-3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKG), in food-search behavior in Drosophila has been intensively studied. However, its functions in other complex behaviors have not been well-characterized. Here, we show experimentally in Drosophila that the for gene is required in the operant visual learning paradigm. Visual pattern memory was normal in a natural variant rover (for(R)) but was impaired in another natural variant sitter (for(S)), which has a lower PKG level. Memory defects in for(S) flies could be rescued by either constitutive or adult-limited expression of for in the fan-shaped body. Interestingly, we showed that such rescue also occurred when for was expressed in the ellipsoid body. Additionally, expression of for in the fifth layer of the fan-shaped body restored sufficient memory for the pattern parameter "elevation" but not for "contour orientation," whereas expression of for in the ellipsoid body restored sufficient memory for both parameters. Our study defines a Drosophila model for further understanding the role of cGMP-PKG signaling in associative learning/memory and the neural circuit underlying this for-dependent visual pattern memory.     

The ecology of self-monitoring effects on memory of verbal productions: Does speaking to someone make a difference?

Experiments involving verbal self-monitoring show that memory for spoken words varies with types of sensory feedback: memory is better when words are spoken aloud than when they are lip-synched or covertly produced. Such effects can be explained by the Central Monitoring Theory (CMT) via a process that matches a forward model reflecting expected sensory effects of practiced forms and sensory information during speech. But CMT oversees factors of shared attention as achieved by speaker–listener gaze, and implies that sensory feedback may not affect the learning of unpracticed forms (non-words). These aspects of CMT were examined in two experiments of self-monitoring focusing on oro-sensory feedback. In Experiment 1 we show that varying feedback creates differential effects on memory for spoken words and that speaker–listener gaze alters these effects. Using non-words, Experiment 2 shows the absence of differential feedback effects. The results confirm CMT but suggest the need to refine the theory in terms of processes that mediate attention.     

Auditory-verbal short-term memory impairment and conduction aphasia

The specific impairment of performance on repetition tasks has classically been identified with conduction aphasia. It is argued that this impairment can be subdivided and a deficit in span performance distinguished from that of the reproduction of single words. An explanation of the span deficit in terms of auditory-verbal short-term memory is preferred to hypotheses involving disconnections or damage to order retention systems. It is shown that a short-term memory component is present in many patients previously classified as conduction aphasics.     

Effects of retention intervals on receiver operating characteristics in artificial grammar learning

Current theories of memory suggest that recognition is composed of separate processes of familiarity and recollection (e.g. [Yonelinas, A. P. (2002). The nature of recollection and familiarity: a review of 30 years of research. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 441-517]). A key feature of these two processes is that they decay, or are forgotten at different rates. The dual-process model has also been useful in understanding artificial grammar learning. We obtained evidence for recollection and familiarity in artificial grammar learning by analyses of receiver operating characteristics (ROC). Furthermore we found that these were dissociated by retention intervals of 14 days. The slope of the zROC curves deviated reliably from 1 immediately after study and increased towards 1 suggesting that recollection contributed to recognition decisions but declined over the 14-day period leaving familiarity as the only basis for recognition. These data show similar patterns to those observed in word-recognition [Gardiner, J. M., & Java, R. I. (1991). Forgetting in recognition memory with and without recollective experience. Memory &Cognition, 19, 617-623; Tunney, R. J. (submitted for publication). Changes in the subjective experience of recognition over time suggest independent processes] and confirm the view that recollection and familiarity are implicated in artificial grammar learning. Moreover, the data confirm the finding that recollection and familiarity-based memory show different patterns of forgetting.     

不同动机和材料因素对学习判断影响的实验研究

本研究主要考察不同动机和材料因素对学习判断的影响。采用标准R-J-R实验程序,运用有意义与无意义词对对120名被试进行实验。结果发现：（1）成就目标、记忆自我效能、材料因素对JOL有显著影响,材料因素对JOL影响最大,记忆自我效能次之,成就目标最小;（2）成就目标与记忆自我效能存在交互作用对JOL有显著影响;（3）成就目标以记忆自我效能为中介影响JOL;（4）JOL准确性与回忆成绩存在显著正相关。     

The interaction of semantic memory with storage and retrieval processes

A procedure for separating storage from retrieval (R. Chechile & D. L. Meyer, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1976, 14, 430–437) lead to the conclusion that memory development involves changes in both storage and retrieval. Nevertheless, these changes resulted from the interaction of storage and retrieval mechanisms with the age-related elaboration of the semantic memory system. This study shows that the memory improvement with age, between kindergarten and second grade, vanished when the meaningfulness of the materials were equated. The most plausible interpretation of the results is the hardware invariance hypothesis. According to that hypothesis, the memory apparatus for information processing is constant across ages, but the hardware is used more effectively if there is a better-developed semantic memory system.