Bouncers and barroom aggression: A review of the research

Bouncers (also referred to as “doormen,” “door staff,” “security personnel,” etc.) have received a great deal of attention in the available research on barroom aggression. All too often, researchers blame bouncers for provoking and escalating aggressive episodes in bars rather than functioning in a capacity that controls or prevents such incidents. The primary aim of this review paper is to provide an overview of the available research on bouncers and barroom aggression. Specifically, research on barroom aggression that implicates bouncers as one of possibly several environmental predictors of such incidents, as well as a growing body of research that provides a more focused exploration of the role of bouncers in barrooms and their impact on aggression, is examined and evaluated. Attempts to address problem bouncers and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

The frequency, nature, and effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons

This research examined the effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons on women's affect, body satisfaction, and weight-related cognitions. During their daily activities, women reporting body dissatisfaction (n=53) and women reporting body satisfaction (n=34) recorded their reactions to comparison information. Body-dissatisfied women engaged in more comparisons and a greater proportion of upward comparisons than body-satisfied women. Upward comparisons were associated with an increase in negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and thoughts of exercising for both groups; however, body-dissatisfied women experienced a greater increase in thoughts of dieting following upward comparisons. The daily effects of comparison information on body-dissatisfied women were examined; upward comparisons were associated with increases in daily negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and weight-related cognitions.     

Mitigating aggression and promoting prosocial behavior in aggressive elementary schoolboys

The effects of four school-based interventions designed to decrease children's aggression and promote prosocial behavior were assessed. One hundred and four aggressive boys, ages 8–13, from ‘Behavior Disorder’ classrooms, were assigned to one of four training conditions: cognitive (self-control) training, behavioral (prosocial skills) training, combined cognitive-behavioral training, or attention/play training. School psychologists trained the boys in small groups for 10 1-h sessions. It was hypothesized that training in both cognitive and behavioral competencies would lead to the most behavioral improvement. Results indicated that, according to teacher report, those children receiving the cognitive-behavioral and attention/play interventions improved significantly more than those exposed to cognitive and behavioral training by decreasing their aggression and increasing their prosocial behavior immediately following the intervention. At 6-month follow-up, only those children exposed to the attention/play intervention remained significantly improved.     

Validity of rating scales in assessing aggressive behavior in classroom settings

The teachers of 35 boys attending a Lehigh University-based laboratory school for emotionally and behaviorally disturbed children completed rating scales designed to assess aggressive behavior in children. Children also completed similar self-report instruments. Frequency counts of aggressive outbursts and outburst durations were recorded by teachers over a 4-week period. The results of the study found significant correlations among teacher-completed and child-completed measures. The relationships between child-completed measures, one of the teacher measures, and the direct observation measure were not significant. One teacher-completed measure, but no child-completed measures, had significant correlations with aggressive outbursts and durations. The implications for behavioral assessment are discussed.     

Self-esteem of victim and the intent of third-party aggression in the reduction of hostile aggression

High- and low-self-esteem male subjects were angered by a male confederate's critical reply to their autobiographical letter. A comparison with a nonangered group showed that this insulting reply led to aggression as measured by both administered shock and changes in self-rated hostility. Subjects who had been angered next heard one of three speeches by the experimenter: a speech in retaliation to the confederate's reply, a speech in retaliation to an unrelated incident, or a control, filler speech. Third-party retaliation related to the insulting reply reduced aggression, while third-party retaliation unrelated to the reply failed to reduce aggression in the overall analysis. Comparisons were also made within each level of self-esteem. There were no significant differences between the experimental treatments among the high-self-esteem subjects. Among low-self-esteem subjects, both related and unrelated retaliation significantly reduced subjects' aggression, but related retaliation was significantly more effective in reducing aggression than was unrelated retaliation. The results were interpreted as supporting equity and self-esteem explanations of hostile aggression.These studies were conducted as part of a doctoral dissertation in the Department of Psychology, University of Miami. The author wishes to express his gratitude to his chairman, Dr. Edward J. Murray; to Pedro Villa, who served as the second experimenter; and to Robert Anacreonte, Kenneth Koos, Joel Lerner, Carlos Pages, and Michael Sisbarro, who served as confederates.     

drinking patterns,social interaction,and barroom behavior: a routine activities approach

Routine activities and place theory both offer a unique analytical framework to study the types of activities and behaviors that occur within urban drinking settings as well as the consequent problem-related behavior in surrounding residential neighborhoods. Using observational data from two urban bars this study set out to determine how routine drinking patterns, social interaction, and formal guardianship, such as controls and management practices, are related to patron alcohol consumption and behavioral responses within and outside the bar. The results illustrate that the level and extent of effective forms of guardianship within the facility correspond with patron behavior. Generally, the bar that provided the greatest level of guardianship by the use of effective bouncers had a lower amount of predatory sexual offending and disorder within the bar. Moreover, the routine activities of patrons attending the bars in this study also contributed to increased amounts of disorder outside the bars and in adjoining neighborhoods. Several theoretical and policy implications of bar owners social responsibility to regulate the disorderly and destructive behavior of their patrons are presented.     

Acceptability of interventions for aggressive behavior in long-term care settings: comparing ratings and hierarchical selection

Fifty-six active treatment team members in long-term nursing care facilities completed an online survey assessing treatment acceptability of modern behavioral, pharmacological, and sensory interventions. A traditional treatment acceptability rating scale was compared to treatment selections in a paired-options format. Unlike earlier research, there were no significant differences in acceptability between the 3 interventions on the traditional rating scale. However, ratings and selections were significantly correlated for behavioral and pharmacological interventions. The clinical significance of such relations and the implications for the use of treatment ratings is discussed.     

The catharsis hypothesis,aggressive drive,and the reduction of aggression

The import of the concept of aggressive drive for the construct of catharsis, particularly the trend toward alternatives to drive concepts, is considered. Three conceptions of catharsis are distinguished—the Dramatic model, the Clinical model and the Experimental model. The Dramatic and Clinical models are seen to focus on affective engagement and change, while differing in the vicarious nature of the cathartic experience, in the degree of cognitive representation entailed, and in the nature of the interpersonal context. The Experimental model is seen to be addressed to the more general problem of aggression reduction through aggressive acts. The Dramatic and Clinical models of catharsis are viewed as more specific and germane, and the hypothesis is proposed that catharsis obtains in the case of inhibited rather than persistent or unresolved affect.     

Sexual arousal in response to aggression: ideological, aggressive, and sexual correlates

In two experiments we assessed the impact of aggression on nonrapists' sexual arousal. In the first, both male subjects (n = 37) and female subjects (n = 43) reported more sexual arousal in response to nonaggressive than to aggressive depictions when the portrayals were sexually explicit, but the opposite occurred when the portrayals were nonsexual. Only male subjects (N = 359) participated in the second experiment. On the basis of their self-reported sexual arousal to the use of force, they were classified into the no arousal, moderate arousal or high arousal from force groups. To evaluate the veridicality of this classification, we assessed some subjects' (n = 118) penile tumescence in response to various depictions. The findings generally replicated those of the first experiment and confirmed the accuracy of the arousal-from-force classification. The no arousal and the moderate arousal from force subjects were less sexually aroused by aggressive than by nonaggressive portrayals, but the opposite was found for the high arousal from force group. Using the entire sample (N = 359), we also assessed differences on various factors among these three groups. We found strong differences on ideological factors, including acceptance of violence against and dominance over women. We also found differences in acceptance of nonsexual aggression and in subjects' beliefs that they might actually use force against women. In contrast, differences were not found on sexuality factors. The data's implications for theories on the causes of rape are discussed.     

In search of personality traits: A multimethod analysis of naturally occurring prosocial and dominance behavior

Naturally occurring prosocial and dominance behaviors were observed via multiple methods in four groups of adolescents. Individuals varied considerably in their frequency of prosocial and dominance behaviors, regardless of the method employed. These interindividual differences were maintained across situations and over time. The data are consistent with a trait conceptualization of dominance and prosocial behavior. The strength of the present findings suggest that personality researchers need to employ research strategies which extensively observe individuals in the contexts in which they live.     

Defining,measuring, and predicting impulsive aggression: a heuristic model

Aggression research does not lack data—it lacks a model for integrating data. One of the problems confronting aggression researchers is the extensive body of multidisciplinary data that is difficult to synthesize to generate new directions in research. This paper proposes one solution that starts by asking “what is the minimal number of categories of concepts and measurements which are necessary to describe a person?”. The answer is four categories of concepts: biological; cognitive; behavioral; environmental (physical and social). One way of many for integrating these four categories of concepts is a proposed discipline neutral heuristic model that is used herein to compare two different research approaches to the study of impulsive aggression. This comparison identifies clearly the differences in the two approaches with regard to different emphases among the four categories of constructs for each program. Using the model, an example of common ground between the two approaches is sought as a basis for extending aggression research. The main conclusion of one of the research programs was that central nervous arousal is related to impulsive aggression. This program demonstrated that phenytoin will reduce impulsive aggressive acts and has an effect on CNS arousal. The other research program on impulsive aggression has been at the forefront in demonstrating the well established inverse relationship between serotonin levels and aggression. The comparison resulted in the suggestion that both serotonin and phenytoin may relate to a common neurochemical substrate which interacts in part to control CNS arousal, especially at the cortical level. The proposed heuristic model made obvious the need to use synthesizing concepts (e.g. information processing or language) which can interrelate multidisciplinary concepts and data from different research programs within the four categories of constructs when comparing interdisciplinary research. This paper also discusses a two step procedure for classifying aggressive acts as impulsive or premeditated. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature

Research on exposure to television and movie violence suggests that playing violent video games will increase aggressive behavior. A meta-analytic review of the video-game research literature reveals that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults. Experimental and nonexperimental studies with males and females in laboratory and field settings support this conclusion. Analyses also reveal that exposure to violent video games increases physiological arousal and aggression-related thoughts and feelings. Playing violent video games also decreases prosocial behavior.     

Reactive aggression in boys with disruptive behavior disorders: behavior,physiology, and affect

This study examined responses to peer provocation in boys ages 9–13 years who met symptomatic criteria for ADHD-only, ODD/CD-only, comorbid ADHD/ODD/CD, or no diagnosis. Boys participated in a reaction-time game that included standardized verbal and behavioral provocation. Their behavioral, physiological, and affective responses to this task were measured. Results showed that groups did not differ following high levels of provocation because all boys behaved aggressively. However, following low provocation boys with comorbid ADHD/ODD/CD had higher levels of behavioral aggression, had greater heart rate acceleration, and were rated as angrier than all other boys. In addition, boys with comorbid ADHD/ODD/CD held a grudge longer than other children. Results suggest that boys with comorbid ADHD/ODD/CD are especially reactive to provocation from their peers.     

Naturalistic studies of aggressive behavior: aggressive stimuli, victim visibility, and horn honking.

Three studies extended laboratory research on aggression to a naturalistic setting which involved horn honking from drivers as a measure of aggression; the studies were adapted from Doob and Gross. The results from a survey (Study 1) of 59 drivers suggested that they were frequently irritated by and aggressive toward other drivers. A second study (using a 3x2 factorial design with 92 male drivers) indicated that manipulations of a rifle in an aggressive context and victim visibility (dehumanization) both significantly influenced horn honking rates subsequent to obstruction at a signal light. A third study with 137 male drivers and 63 female drivers examined the interactive effects of a rifle, an aggressively connotated bumper sticker, and individual subject characteristics (sex and an exploratory index of self-perceived status) on horn honking. The results for three studies in naturalistic settings offer possible extensions of laboratory based findings on aggression. The role of inhibitions in modifying the pattern of results was also discussed.     

The changing face of aggression: the effect of personalized avatars in a violent video game on levels of aggressive behavior

Video game developments allow players to design their own personalized avatars. Previous research has shown that this capability increases levels of aggression within socially acceptable forms of violence. Using the general aggression model (GAM), the current study examined the effect of avatar personalization on behavioral aggression within a violent video game. Participants who played a violent video game and designed their own avatars were significantly more aggressive than those who played the same violent video game with a generic avatar, and were also more aggressive than those who played the nonviolent video game, regardless of whether or not they designed their own personalized characters. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.