The Role of Self-Objectification in the Experience of Women with Eating Disorders

Objectification theory has linked self-objectification to negative emotional experiences and disordered eating behavior in cultures that sexually objectify the female body. This link has not been empirically tested in a clinical sample of women with eating disorders. In the present effort, 209 women in residential treatment for eating disorders completed self-report measures of self-objectification, body shame, media influence, and drive for thinness on admission to treatment. Results demonstrated that the internalization of appearance ideals from the media predicted self-objectification, whereas using the media as an informational source about appearance and feeling pressured to conform to media ideals did not. Self-objectification partially mediated the relationship between internalized appearance ideals and drive for thinness; internalized appearance ideals continued to be an independent predictor of variance. In accordance with objectification theory, body shame partially mediated the relationship between self-objectification and drive for thinness in women with eating disorders; self-objectification continued to be an independent predictor of variance. These results illustrate the importance of understanding and targeting the experience of self-objectification in women with eating disorders or women at risk for eating disorders.     

Self-Objectification and Alcohol Use in Young Adult College Women

Few studies have explored factors contributing to women’s increasing alcohol consumption and associated consequences. One potential gender-relevant factor is self-objectification or the perspective toward the self where the body is primarily valued for its appearance and sexual appeal (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). In the current study, we investigated the link between self-objectification and young adult college women’s alcohol use as well as alcohol use prior to casual sexual activity or “hooking up.” In addition, we examined novel explanatory (i.e., sexual self-esteem, body consciousness during sexual activity, alcohol sexual enhancement expectancies) factors in predicting young adult college women’s drinking behaviors via a parallel-serial multiple mediation model. We recruited participants (N?=?518; 85% White, 74% heterosexual) via a psychology department human research pool and Facebook advertisements to complete an online survey. Results revealed that self-objectification was positively correlated with alcohol use and alcohol use prior to hooking up. In addition, self-objectification was indirectly related to alcohol use through sexual self-esteem and alcohol sexual enhancement expectancies, as well as indirectly related to alcohol use prior to hooking up through alcohol sexual enhancement expectancies. None of our theorized three-stage mediation chains linking self-objectification to alcohol use behaviors were significant. These findings highlight the potential negative role of self-objectification in women’s health and the importance of focusing on alcohol sexual enhancement expectancies in intervention strategies.

     

The Eating Disorders Inventory Among Asian American College Women

Abstract

The authors examined the effects of social support and self-control in a representative sample of 300 older adults in high-density households in an urban area of Agra City, India. The authors administered the Social Support Questionnaire (I. G. Sarason, H. M. Levine, R. B. Basham, &; B. R. Sarason, 1983) and the Self-Control Schedule (M. Rosenbaum, 1980) to form a 2 (age group: young-old vs. old-old) × 2 (social support: high vs. low) × 2 (self-control: high vs. low) factorial design. Scores on the Life Attitude Profile (G. T. Recker &; E. J. Peacock, 1981) and the Perceived Control Scale (P. Nayyar, 1993) were the dependent variables. The authors hypothesized that social support and self-control would act as moderators for a more positive attitude toward life and increased perceived control. The results supported the predictions: Social support and self-control in interaction with age reduced the crowding stress of high density and enhanced the older participants' perceived control and positive attitudes toward life.     

The Role of Trait Self-Objectification in Smoking among College Women

Self-objectification, which is the internalization of an observer’s perspective of the self, has been related to restrained and disordered eating patterns and depression. Because disordered eating and depression are known co-factors for smoking, we tested the possible involvement of trait self-objectification in the relationship between these mental health dimensions and smoking in a sample of 130 college women smokers and non-smokers. As hypothesized, we found that trait self-objectification mediated the relationship between smoking status and dieting and disordered eating behaviors. There were no significant differences in depression between smokers and non-smokers, which limited further exploration of the relationship. Implications for trait self-objectification as relevant to women’s weight-control smoking and the relevance of self-objectification to other health behaviors are discussed.     

The Mediating Role of Contingent Self-Esteem in the Association Between Self-Objectification and Self-Esteem

Objectification theory provides an explanatory conceptual framework for describing women’s lived experiences. By using a social psychological approach, the present study focuses on the mediating role of contingent self-esteem within the objectification framework. Participants were 178 female college-students who took part in a paper-and-pencil survey. We explored the possibility that contingent self-esteem can mediate the relationship between body surveillance and body shame with self-sexualizing behavior and self-esteem. Based on the results, we suggest that self-objectification brings about contingent self-esteem. This mental state can explain changes in self-esteem in turn. We propose that contingent self-esteem can play an essential role in the context of objectification theory.     

Sexual Self-Esteem and Perfectionism in Women With and Without Overweight

The purpose of this study was to examine sexual self-esteem and perfectionism among Iranian women with and without overweight based on the role of age and education; and to investigate the relationships of sexual self-esteem, perfectionism, and body mass index in a sample of adult women. Participants were 200 women with and without overweight who were selected following a purposive sampling method from Shiraz City, Iran. A demographic questionnaire, Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women (SSEI-W), and Perfectionism Inventory (PI) were used. Resulting data showed that women without overweight had higher total scores of sexual self-esteem and on the WWEI-W subscale of attractiveness compared with women who are overweight. Also, women who are overweight had higher total scores of perfectionism, as well as higher scores on subscales of interpersonal sensitivity and high standards for others compared to women without overweight. There was no significant effect for age and educational level on sexual self-esteem and perfectionism. The results demonstrated significantly negative relationships between overall sexual self-esteem, attractiveness subscale of sexual self-esteem, and body mass index. Also, the overall perfectionism and interpersonal sensitivity, striving for excellence, organization, and standards for others subscales of perfectionism had a significant positive relationship to the body mass index.     

Disordered Eating Attitudes and Self-Objectification Among Physically Active and Sedentary Female College Students

The authors' purpose in this study was to examine objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T. A. Roberts, 1997) among physically active (n = 115) and sedentary (n = 70) women. The women completed the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998), the Body Surveillance and Body Shame subscales of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (McKinley & Hyde, 1996), the Appearance Anxiety Scale (Dion, Dion, & J. Keelan, 1990), a flow experiences measure (Tiggemann & Slater, 2001), and the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982). Self-objectification directly and indirectly (via body shame and appearance anxiety) predicted disordered eating in both groups of women. Physically active women reported more frequent flow experiences than sedentary women. Women high in self-objectification reported higher levels of body surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety, and self-reported disordered eating attitudes. Body surveillance was related to disordered eating only among women with high self-objectification. Appearance anxiety was negatively associated with flow experiences among sedentary women. Objectification theory provides a useful framework for understanding factors related to disordered eating attitudes among active and sedentary college women.     

Racial and Sexual Objectification of Asian American Women: Associations with Trauma Symptomatology,Body Image Concerns,and Disordered Eating

ABSTRACT

Sexism and racism often imbue Asian American women’s socialization experiences. Operating from an objectification theory framework, the present article (a) examines the conceptual relevance of racial and sexual objectification in describing Asian American women’s oppressive experiences, (b) reviews empirical studies linking racial and sexual objectification with Asian American women’s mental health issues, specifically in the areas of trauma symptomatology, body image concerns, and disordered eating, (c) offers critiques of existing research and points to directions for future research, and (d) discusses clinical implications for therapy work with Asian American women based on available literature. In essence, the present review highlights how Asian American women may experience body image concerns, disordered eating, and trauma symptomatology through processes ethnoculturally and socioculturally distinct to them via experiences of racial and sexual objectification. This review calls for a more nuanced and precise understanding of Asian American women’s racial and sexual objectification experiences and associated mental health difficulties. This understanding can only occur through increased empirical research and clinical practice, as informed by feminist scholarship situated in a culturally expanded objectification framework.     

Self-Objectification, Self-Esteem, and Gender: Testing a Moderated Mediation Model

The purpose of the present research was to test the mediating roles of body shame and appearance anxiety in the relation between self-surveillance and self-esteem; and to investigate whether gender (male, female) and stereotypical gender roles (masculinity, femininity) moderated the proposed mediation model. Canadian undergraduate university men and women (n?=?198) completed measures of self-surveillance, gender, gender roles, body shame, appearance anxiety, and self-esteem. Regression analyses demonstrated that greater self-surveillance predicted lower self-esteem, and this relation was fully mediated by body shame and appearance anxiety. With the exception of masculinity interacting with self-surveillance to predict body shame and appearance anxiety, neither gender nor stereotypical gender roles moderated the proposed paths. Implications are discussed.     

African American Women Survivors of Sexual Assault:

More attention has recently focused on the psychological experiences of women survivors of sexual assault. However, little work has examined the experiences of African American women survivors, particularly with regard to the impact of race and class on survivors' experiences. We address these limitations by presenting a socio-historical analysis of African American women's rape experiences. This analysis considers the relationship between sexual and economic oppression in African American women's lives. Second, we discuss the influences of these socio-historical factors on African American women's post-assault experiences. Finally, recommendations for therapy with African American women survivors are provided.     

Eating Disorders Among Urban and Rural African American and European American Women

Abstract

It is alleged that eating disorders are nonexistent in African American women and that eating disorder symptomatology occurs predominantly among White middle class women (Kumanyika, Wilson, & Guilford-Davenport, 1993; Smolak & Striegel-Moore, 2001). This research attempted to identify differences in eating disorder symptomatology in African American and White American women. An eating disorder is a disability because it can damage the person physically, emotionally and socially. It can be undetected for years and society may reinforce the hidden disorder by being complimentary regarding the thin appearance of the person. The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) was used to measure psychological traits and symptom clusters associated with the understanding and treatment of eating disorders (Garner, 1990). Measures of self-esteem, depression and coping were also examined. Findings indicated differences between African American and White women on the Ineffectiveness scale of the EDI, differences between the urban/rural women on Ineffectiveness and Perfectionism, and differences in coping strategies and education among this sample group of women. Successful treatment usually involves psychotherapy and/or medication for depression.     

Body Dissatisfaction,Need for Social Approval,and Eating Disturbances Among Japanese and American College Women

A total of 171 Japanese and 144 American collegewomen (90% European American, 4% African American, 4%Asian or Asian American, and 2% other) completed theEating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), the Body Dissatisfaction Subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory(EDI), and the Revised Martin-Larsen Approval MotivationScale (MLAM). Japanese women expressed the greaterdissatisfaction with their body but no more eatingdisturbances than American women. The need for socialapproval predicted the Japanese women's eatingdisturbances after controlling for the effects of bodyfatness (BMI) and body dissatisfaction. BMI was asignificant predictor of eating disturbances for Americanwomen but not for Japanese women. The results werediscussed in terms of their implications forcross-cultural similarities and differences incorrelates of disordered eating.     

Gender Differences in Memory Perspectives: Evidence for Self-Objectification in Women

This study tests Fredrickson and Roberts' (1997)assertion that cultural practices of sexuallyobjectifying women's bodies socialize women tointernalize an observer's perspective on their physicalselves. Autobiographical memories can contain imagesfrom two perspectives: the original, first personperspective (field images) and that of an outsideobserver (observer images) (Nigro and Neisser, 1983). We collected autobiographical memories for eventsin general and for specific, potentially objectifyingsituations from a predominantly European-American sampleof 138 female and 104 male students at a private university. Results demonstrated that femaleparticipants reported more observer imagery than maleparticipants both for memories in general and formemories of certain situations wherein women are likely to be sexually objectified. Women's and men'semotional responses to these situations were alsodifferent, with women reporting more negative affect,including shame and anxiety, and less positiveaffect.     

Sexual Health Counselor Preferences of African American and European American Women: A Brief Report

African American women (n = 42) and European American women (n = 46) were queried regarding their comfort level discussing various sexual health topics with hypothetical counselors who were varied by race (African American vs. European American) or counseling value (culturally sensitive vs. knowledgeable). Contrary to hypotheses, European American participants were more comfortable with the knowledgeable African American counselor and the culturally sensitive European American counselor, while African American women showed no preference. Implications are discussed for improving sexual health counseling services for African American and European American women with consideration of client sexual attitude and race of counselor in order to reduce disparities in sexual health.     

Eating Disorders of White American,Racial and Ethnic Minority American,and International Women

Eating attitudes and behaviors related to anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and obesity of White American, African-American, Native American, and some international women are considered from the point of view of cultural influences such as sex role, the media, socioeconomic class, and acculturation to Western society.     

Toward Reducing Risk for Eating Disorders and Obesity in Latina College Women

The efficacy of 2 computer‐based programs was tested with Latina college women (N= 64). Compared with participants in the control group, intervention participants improved their motivation to eat fruits and vegetables (F&V; p= .042) and to participate in physical activity (p= .023) and significantly increased their F&V intake (pre‐ to posttest, p < .001; pre‐follow‐up, p= .002). Body dissatisfaction improved at a trend level (p= .055). Some modest effects of computer‐based programs were found.     

Objectification in Fitness Centers: Self-Objectification, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating in Aerobic Instructors and Aerobic Participants

This study was designed to investigate self-objectification, its theoretical consequences, and its relationship to reasons for exercise within a fitness center environment. Sixty female aerobic instructors and 97 female aerobic participants, who ranged in age from 18 to 45 years, completed questionnaire measures of self-objectification, reasons for exercise, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating. Increased self-objectification (and self-surveillance) was related to disordered eating symptomatology, body dissatisfaction, and appearance-related reasons for exercise. Aerobic instructors scored significantly lower on self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating than did aerobic participants, and they exercised more for enjoyment and less for appearance-related reasons. For aerobic participants, location of exercise (inside or outside the fitness center) moderated the relationship between frequency of exercise and self-objectification, such that exercising within fitness centers was associated with relatively higher self-objectification. Higher levels of self-objectification were also related to wearing tighter exercise clothing. These results support the general model of Objectification Theory, and provide practical implications for women who exercise within objectifying environments.     

Health-Related Quality of Life in Women with Eating Disorders: Association with Subjective and Objective Binge Eating

This study examined health-related quality of life (QOL) and its association with different forms of binge eating in 53 women with eating disorders. Participants had enrolled in treatment for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, or other eating disorders not otherwise specified and completed measures of QOL, eating-related psychopathology, and mood disturbance. Eating- and mood-related psychopathology, and to a lesser extent, mental-component QOL scores, were severely impaired in this sample relative to population norms. QOL was significantly and independently predicted by subjective bulimic episodes and compensatory behaviors, including food avoidance, laxative abuse, and self-induced vomiting, accounting for 32% of the variance. Subjective bulimic episodes and food avoidance also independently predicted the physical-component QOL, accounting for 27% of the variance. These findings suggest that subjective bulimic episodes may be independently associated with impairment in QOL and may require specific attention as targets of treatment.     

Body Objectification, Self-Esteem, and Relationship Satisfaction: A Comparison of Exotic Dancers and College Women

We examined body objectification, self-esteem, and relationship satisfaction differences between college women and exotic dancers and the relationships among these measures for both groups. Forty-three college women and 40 female exotic dancers completed a questionnaire that assessed each of these constructs. Relative to college women, exotic dancers reported less relationship satisfaction, more body surveillance, and a greater prioritizing of body attractiveness over physical competence. Relationship satisfaction and the prioritizing of appearance over physical competence varied for the heterosexual and bisexual dancers. For exotic dancers, the body objectification measures of surveillance and shame were negatively, and body control was positively, related to self-esteem; body shame was negatively related to relationship satisfaction. For college women, higher levels of body surveillance and body shame were associated with higher prioritizing of physical attractiveness relative to physical competence.