人与情境交互作用理论述评

人与情境交互作用理论认为,人一情境系统是一个整合、复杂和动态的整体,个体是其中一个积极和有目的的部分。该理论对情境在个体功能和发展中的作用、人一情境系统发挥自身功能的原则,以及人和情境子系统的结构和过程作了详尽的分析。这些理论主张对当前心理学的理论、方法和研究策略具有深远的启示意义,但也存在难以操作化的缺点。     

情境美德论

情境美德论是依据人格心理学与情境主义关于人格特质、情境与行为之间关系的共识而提出的,它由两个方面的观点构成。第一,现实的美德是情境化的,具有广度和强度差异。第二,道德品格作为一种人格特质与道德情境之间存在交互作用。情境美德论的实践性主要体现在对个体道德行为的解释和预测、个体道德品质的发展和培育。美德是个体在具体情境中生成的,美德伦理学不应当简单地通过规范性观点来化解情境主义的挑战,还应当考察情境与美德的关系来研究美德实践问题。     

儿童发展的环境敏感性模型：一种整合的观点

儿童发展的环境敏感性模型是在整合素质-压力模型、差别易感性模型、优势敏感性模型、情境生物敏感性模型以及感觉加工敏感性模型理论观点的基础上提出来的一个关于个体与环境因素如何交互影响儿童发展的元理论框架。该模型认为儿童的环境敏感性即儿童感知和加工周围环境刺激信息的能力不同,其发展受到环境影响的大小就不同,高环境敏感性儿童受到环境影响大,低环境敏感性儿童受到环境影响小。儿童的环境敏感性是儿童携带的敏感基因与早期环境交互作用的结果,敏感基因与早期环境共同塑造了中枢神经系统功能的敏感性,从而导致儿童对环境刺激的心理、生理与行为反应不同。大量实证研究表明,存在基因多态性、神经生理与气质等不同的潜在环境敏感性因子。儿童发展的环境敏感性模型的提出,为从基因-神经生理-环境三项交互作用系统探讨儿童发展的多样性提供了理论框架。     

情境交互作用理论体系：辩证心理学与交互行为心理学

摘要 辩证心理学和交互行为心理学是近年对心理学理论建设和方法论改革影响较大的心理学取向,它们可以共同归纳到心理学的情境交互作用理论体系之下。情境交互作用理论体系打破了传统心理学只关注意识、行为和心理机制的单一维度,认为心理学应该关注机体与情境交互作用中的意义。文章对辩证心理学和交互行为心理学的主要观点和主要假设进行了详细阐释。最后对情境作用理论体系对当代心理学的影响和启示进行了说明,可以为未来心理学的发展指明方向。     

青少年期的意向性自我调节

意向性自我调节是指个体以增强个体功能或优化自我发展为目标, 积极协调情境中的要求、资源与个人目标之间关系的一系列行动过程, 其主要理论基础是SOC(选择、优化和补偿)理论。研究发现青少年期是意向性自我调节发展的关键时期, 意向性自我调节既能直接影响青少年发展, 又能与家庭、社区等情境因素以及活动经验等近端过程交互作用, 从而间接影响青少年发展。未来研究应该在意向性自我调节的测量方法、过程观的研究范式、发展规律和培养途径等方面进一步深入。     

攻击行为一般模式述评

攻击行为一般模式从社会认知取向分析了特定情境下攻击行为的发生过程,即,人的因素和情境因素两个输入变量通过影响个体当时的内在状态和后继的评价与决策过程而产生攻击行为;同时,它还阐释了攻击性人格的形成和发展过程,即,生物因素与社会环境的相互作用影响个体的知识结构和知识结构中的情感要素,与攻击性相关的知识结构的发展、自动化和强化。对个体会产生长期的影响,从而改变个体的人格。该模式代表了攻击行为认知研究取向最新的理论进展。     

个体依恋特征的二重性：特质性依恋与状态性依恋

传统依恋理论认为个体依恋心理和行为模式具有相对稳定性, 但无论在信息加工还是个体发展过程中, 个体依恋模式均表现出二重性, 即既具有相对稳定性, 又具有情境敏感性。个体在情境中所表现出的依恋模式是个体相对稳定的特质性依恋和情境特征相互作用的结果。依恋启动研究中特质性依恋特征与依恋启动效应之间的交互作用模式为理解依恋二重特征及其关系提供了窗口。依恋系统激活的两阶段模型为整合和解释这些相互作用模式提供了框架。未来研究应优化依恋二重特征关系研究中启动效应的操作检验, 考虑依恋焦虑和回避维度的交互作用, 关注高焦虑群体内的依恋差异, 以理析依恋二重特征之间的相互作用方式, 同时关注依恋策略影响依恋启动效应的时间进程, 探究依恋二重特征相互作用的机制。     

攻击行为社会信息加工模型与道德领域理论的整合

儿童攻击行为研究中Dodge等人提出的社会信息加工模型,强调社会交互作用情境下个体的信息加工过程与后来的社会行为之间的联系,对于信息加工所依据的数据库则缺乏系统的阐述。领域理论源于对道德认知的思考,将个体的社会知识分为道德、常规和个人三个领域,强调个体在领域认同标准和领域混合事件推理上的差异。Arsenio和Lemerise在情绪与社会信息加工模型整合的基础上,提出借鉴领域理论来说明数据库的内部结构以及其中的社会知识对于信息加工的影响。这些整合体现了认知和情绪在社会行为加工和决策过程中的交互作用,有利于说明存储在长时记忆中的社会知识之间的联系及作用,引发了对各种形式的内部心理成分的理论思考和多个实证研究方向,也为心理研究其他方面的整合工作提供了值得借鉴的研究思路     

社会情境中的控制感

控制感是心理学研究中的重要概念。近年来, 研究者发现传统的控制感理论过分强调个体行为对环境的影响而忽略了环境中的限制因素(社会背景、历史文化、现实因素)对控制感的作用。次要控制理论、可协商命运观和控制感补偿理论分别从不同角度对社会情境中的个体控制感进行研究。次要控制理论主要强调在低控制情境下个体通过自身调节接受客观环境以获得次要控制; 可协商命运观则认为亚洲文化下的个体在承认不可改变的环境作用的前提下依然坚持自己有限的能动性以此获得控制感; 而控制感补偿理论则认为当个体处于低控制环境之中以致个体控制感受到威胁时, 个体会通过一系列方式针对控制感缺失进行补偿。本文在对三种理论分析的基础之上提出了对中国控制感本土化研究方向的思考。     

面相识人：基于认知视角的解释

面相是辨识和推断他人品格以及行为习性的重要因素, 但其内在机理有待深化。基于一般认知视角和进化认知视角, 从面相的局部特征和整体特征出发, 阐述面相识人的过程及其影响效果。从一般认知视角来看, 面相会通过不同的认知加工系统对识别个体特质产生影响, 识别到的个体特质在判断(能力、收入、社会层级)以及决策(信任、招聘与晋升)过程中扮演重要角色。从进化认知视角来看, 面相会通过不同的进化选择机制对识别个体健康、基因状况发挥作用, 进而对判断(婚姻满意度、幸福感、生活满意度)和择偶决策产生重要影响。此外, 面相的影响程度取决于个体所处的情境以及个体特质等因素。未来研究应该考察不同面相之间的交互作用, 探索面相识人效果的边界条件, 利用大数据分析提升面相研究的外部效度, 关注后天修饰的面相的影响效果, 开展本土情境下的面相识人研究, 从而丰富面相的研究内容, 构建更加系统的面相研究理论体系。     

The logic of interpreting evidence of developmental ordering: strong inference and categorical measures

Developmental ordering is a fundamental prediction of developmental theories and a central issue in developmental research. However, logically sound evidence of developmental ordering is difficult to obtain. This article analyzes the logical basis of testing developmental order hypotheses with categorical measures. Depending on whether saltatory (i.e., discrete) or continuous developmental changes are being assessed, the observed relationship between categorical measures yields very different types of information about developmental ordering. When change is continuous, the relationship between the measures does not confirm any one ordering hypothesis, but rather, disconfirms one or more hypotheses. Whether an underlying variable undergoes saltatory or continuous development has long been recognized as an important theoretical issue, but its impact on the interpretation of developmental ordering has not previously been explicated.     

The concept of development in contextualism

Contextualism, a world view or paradigm which suggests the role of social, cultural, and historical change in individual development, became the focus of increasing interest throughout the 1970s. Nevertheless, despite the suggestion that contextualism offered a new philosophical position from which to derive concepts and theories of development, criticism occurred because it was believed that the dispersive nature of contextualism obviated the formulation of a useful definition of development. We review the characteristics of the contextual paradigm and argue for a principled integration (as opposed to an eclectic one) between selected features of contextualism and of organicism. The former approach offers a dispersive view of the nature of variables involved in development and the latter provides an integrative one. We attempt to forge a probabilistic epigenetic, or developmental-contextual, paradigm for the study of human development, one which relies on the concept of integrative levels and which conceives of the causal variables of development as interacting in a temporally probabilistic manner.     

All the World Is Not a Stage: Emerging Contextualist Themes in Counseling and Development

Classical stage-based theories of human development, drawn from organismic worldviews, possess many shortcomings when extended to counseling applications. In attempting to reduce development to linear, hierarchical sequences, these theories fail to account for the interactional nature of change processes and implicitly pathologize developmental diversity. Responding to these shortcomings, counselors are turning to contextualist models of development that emphasize process over outcome. In this article I review key assumptions of contextualism, as embodied in social role theory and the life-span developmental tradition, highlighting relevant theory and research. I propose that two vital forces within current counseling—constructivism and interactional counseling—are animated by contextualist notions of development. Specific implications of contextualism for future counseling research and practice are outlined.     

Paradigms,Metaphors, and Narratives

This paper addresses the issue of the status of developmental theories. It discusses the concepts of paradigm, metaphor, and narrative as these apply to developmental theories. The author argues that all developmental theories use metaphors as explanatory models. The type of metaphor a theory uses determines whether or not it has a narrative structure. Developmental theories that use a contextual metaphor as opposed to those that use mechanistic or organismic metaphors do not have narrative structure, although their applications to individual cases create narratives. By examining the type of metaphor developmental theories use it is possible to construct a theory that is both coherent and that corresponds to the events associated with development. This conclusion leads to the rejection of constructivist approaches to viewing development, and suggests that it is possible for a developmental theory to attain the status of a paradigm.     

The role of neighborhood ecological assets and activity involvement in youth developmental outcomes: Differential impacts of asset poor and asset rich neighborhoods

Developmental system theories recognize that variables from multiple levels of organization within the bioecology of human development contribute to adolescent development, including individual factors, family factors and the neighborhood which includes extracurricular activities. Extracurricular activities provide a context for youth development, and participation has been linked with positive developmental outcomes. This study uses data from a subsample of early adolescents in the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development to determine whether neighborhood assets moderate the effect of adolescent activity involvement on positive and negative developmental outcomes. The relationship between activity involvement and neighborhood assets was different for girls as compared to boys when assessing outcomes of positive youth development, risk behavior, and depression. Consistent with a developmental systems perspective, the findings affirm the need for researchers and practitioners to consider multiple contextual influences when seeking to understand or promote, respectively, positive youth development.     

Cognitive developmental biology: history, process and fortune's wheel

Biological contributions to cognitive development continue to be conceived predominantly along deterministic lines, with proponents of different positions arguing about the preponderance of gene-based versus experience-based influences that organize brain circuits irreversibly during prenatal or early postnatal life, and evolutionary influences acting through selection on small numbers of genes. This article discusses evolutionary, mechanistic and probabilistic aspects of developmental processes that cognitive scientists need to better integrate. Developmental processes inseparably fuse experience-dependent and experience-independent components, have important stochastic contributions, and exhibit a greater degree of mechanistic continuity between developing and adult nervous systems than previously thought. Their balanced integration leads to new models for "critical or sensitive" period phenomena and behavioral biases. A general understanding of behavioral development - cognitive developmental biology--will require better coordination between comparative animal and human developmental research programs.     

Enhancing professional competence through developmental approaches to supervision

There has been a recent increase in interest in defining and describing the competencies for professional practice in psychology. Perhaps the most important mechanism for enabling the acquisition of competencies is the process of supervision. This article takes the position, based on a review of relevant research in supervision and the author's experiences, that developmental theories of supervision have stimulated considerable research and provide a direction for future work in research and practice. It is argued that the most detailed of these theories, the Integrated Developmental Model, provides a useful framework for understanding how supervisees change over time and how various supervision environments (broadly) and supervision interventions (specifically) can enhance or detract from the development of professional competencies.     

Alarm call responsivity of mallard ducklings: The inadequacy of learning and genetic explanations of instinctive behavior

Traditional conceptions of learning do not adequately account for the development of species-typical behavior. Developmental theory, though, can account for learning phenomena, as well as seemingly innate behavior. Developmental theory also focuses on subtle, nonobvious, as well as obvious, forms of experience throughout the life span, including the prenatal period. To illustrate the developmental approach, data on the ontogeny of alarm call responsivity in mallard ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos) are presented. This research, which was conducted both in the field and in the laboratory, identifies the particular acoustic feature of alarm calls to which ducklings are sensitive. Additional experiments have shown that normally occurring perinatal auditory experience is required for the development of behavioral inhibition (i.e., “freezing”). These experiments demonstrate the ability of developmental theory to account for phenomena that elude other, more traditional, theories.     

Attachment Versus Differentiation: The Contemporary Couple Therapy Debate

This paper reviews the current debate between differentiation and attachment in treating couples through exploring the tenets of crucible therapy (Schnarch, 1991) and emotionally focused couple therapy (Johnson, 2004). We provide a review of the two theories—as well as the two “pure form” example models—and explore the debate in light of the integrative movement in couple and family therapy (Lebow, 2014). We also examine points of convergence of the two theories and models, and provide clinicians and researchers with an enhanced understanding of their divergent positions. Both differentiation and attachment are developmental theories that highlight the human experience of balancing individuality and connection in adulthood. The two models converge in terms of metaconcepts that pervade their respective theories and approach. Both models capitalize on the depth and importance of the therapeutic relationship, and provide rich case conceptualization and processes of therapy. However, they substantially differ in terms of how they view the fundamental aspects of adult development, have vastly divergent approaches to how a therapist intervenes in the room, and different ideas of how a healthy couple should function. In light of the deep polarization of the two models, points of integration—particularly between the broader theories of attachment and differentiation—are offered for therapists to consider.     

Reassessing truth-evaluability in the Minimalism-Contextualism debate

Synthese - The debate between Semantic Minimalism and Radical Contextualism is standardly characterized as concerning truth-evaluability—specifically, whether or not sentences require rich...