“良知坎陷”：牟宗三的思想脉络与理论开展

在牟宗三哲学发展中,"良知坎陷"说有认识论、历史文化论和存有论三义。"良知坎陷"说的理论开展,既表现为存有论意义上的理论综合,也体现在以"道德实践"对"坎陷"所作的理论规定。在"良知坎陷"说中,存在着文化诉求与哲学思考的思想纠结。由于对"坎陷"之辩证义的独特规定,牟宗三存有论意义的"良知坎陷"既不同于黑格尔绝对精神的辩证开展,也改造了康德现象与物自身超越区分的理论架构,展露出"彻底的唯心论"的基本意蕴,具有新的理论意义。     

牟宗三"良知坎陷说"的发展历程

牟宗三的"良知自我坎陷说"贯穿了其学术思想发展的始终,大致经历了以下四个阶段:一、"内圣"坎陷"外王";二、"存在之理"坎陷"形构之理";三、"仁心觉情"收敛"智相";四、"无执的存有论"坎陷"执的存有论".从以上的发展线索来看,牟宗三的"良知坎陷说"具有一个逐步内在化、形上化的发展趋势,而其中"存在之理"坎陷"形构之理"这一阶段具有关键的意义.     

论牟宗三的“两重坎陷义”

学界对牟宗三\"良知坎陷\"说的研究和评论已经相当丰富,而不论是赞成或反对者只关注到牟宗三关于\"良知坎陷\"说的一个侧面,而没有看到另一方面,从而误读了牟宗三讨论坎陷的问题意识。按照牟宗三关于坎陷的论述理路,可分两重,即凡位坎陷义和圣位坎陷义。凡位坎陷义是牟宗三讨论西方知识形态存在何种缺陷的核心概念,因为坎陷是知识构造的根基。牟宗三认识到西方的知识传统对个体生命的安顿不足,遂要从认识心之坎陷中跃出,最终转向本体界,使得本心呈露,获得真正的安心,此历程从现象界上升到本体界,从凡位转入圣位,亦可说是内圣之路。达到圣位后,还要从本体界下降到现象界来安顿天下人的心,在此历程中仍然需要借助坎陷,具体表现为\"新外王\",其核心内容为科学与民主,但开出的方式上却要本内圣之明,以此使得器物制度皆具有提撕精神。据此可知,凡位坎陷义演内圣之学,而圣位坎陷义开外王之学,二者是上学下达的整体,体现了牟宗三一生学思所向。牟宗三对坎陷问题的讨论始终充满着对现代人生存境遇的人文关怀,他尝试借助东西方已有的文明形态构建起一个融合宇宙知识与生命价值的理想架构。     

坎陷与民主——牟宗三“坎陷开出民主论”的启迪、补充与前瞻

通过坎陷开出民主是牟宗三具有代表性的思想之一。这一思想包含着深刻的理论意义,这主要表现在认定中国没有西方意义的民主,肯定儒家政治的层面不低于西方的民主,坚持开出民主不应抛弃儒家道德的传统,主张完善的政治形式应当道德与智识二者齐备等方面。但由于牟宗三对性恶的层面重视不够,使其思想无法真正落实,这又构成了其相关思想的缺陷。文章最后还对坎陷开出民主的前景谈了个人的理解。     

牟宗三“坎陷开出民主论”的再检讨

在牟宗三先生看来,良知虽是个人发现是非对错、决定道德行动的能力,却在内涵上与作为创造之元的宇宙本体同一;良知作为创造性的力量,能表现、呈现自己,其呈现自己的方式就是"坎陷"。良知经"坎陷"以"开出"并非合乎逻辑地推导出,而是立足于实际,以良知为范导,开创新外王的事业。坎陷"让出"的是建构功能,而恒保持范导、调整、轨约功能;民主则重在保持政权本性、使人的自由能客观化而有保障,善恒为善。     

新儒家与西方政治哲学:牟宗三的民主思想与自我坎陷论

牟宗三与新儒家生活在中国积贫积弱、社会政治文化发生翻天覆地变化的大变革时代。如果要了解牟宗三提出的"道德主体的自我坎陷"的历史背景,我们就需要考虑他思想产生与发展的论述环境——"欧洲中心论"。在欧洲中心论笼罩下的中国思想界,学者视西方民主制度为人类有史以来最优良的政治体制。但是近年来,民主政体的结构性缺陷在民主国家的运作实践中越来越凸显。而在牟宗三看来,民主制度的有效运作需要多种文化与社会条件与之相配合。在牟宗三"自我坎陷"论的视域下,我们可以看到民主理论需要的不是自由主义所突出的个人权利,而是集体的社会福益。民主政治得以运作的基本条件不是个人争取合法地满足自己的所有需要与欲望,而是透过互相尊重、妥协、合作而达成对社会共同利益的维护。民主政治要求选民妥协、合作,甚至自我否定,这便是牟宗三"自我坎陷"论所蕴含的道德精神。牟宗三"自我坎陷"的理论观照了民主制度的缺陷,同时补充了西方民主理论之不足。     

从"德性优先"到"德知并建"——由"良知坎陷"问题引出的中国哲学形上学现代诠释的反思

牟宗三先生的"良知坎陷"有三类提法.只有在道德形上学的圆善层面上进行解读,知识才能得以保存.这固然在儒家心学系统中已经达至圆满,却未必是现代新儒家返本开新的最佳典范.成中英先生在尊重先秦儒家经典的原义上建立了本体诠释学,以一本多体的态度看待道德与知识,在新外王的现代开展上甚于"良知坎陷"的处理方式,为现代中国哲学形上学...     

牟宗三"实践的智慧学"探求诠论

对哲学作为“实践的智慧学”的探求是牟宗三后期哲学思考的核心。这一探索,开启了牟宗三中国哲学与康德哲学双向诠释的基本视域,也拓出了道德形而上学体系建构的理论地平。“实践的智慧学”诠释具有独特的理论内涵,也隐含了牟氏道德形上学自我批判与超越的思想线索。     

论牟宗三“超越的自由主义”——牟宗三哲学思想论纲

牟宗三认为,传统儒家在外王方面"有治道而无政道",从而导致了圣君贤相负担过重而普通民众却是缺乏个性自觉的纯被动的潜伏体的状况。这是儒家文化在面对现代性时呈现出的"功能上的缺陷"。为弥补此缺陷,牟宗三提出了表现为"太极、人极、皇极三者并建"的"超越的自由主义"。其中,"超越的自由主义"是牟宗三致力追求的目标,而"太极、人极、皇极三者并建"是能把牟宗三思想作为整体统一起来的架构。     

牟宗三的“圆教智识论”

后期牟宗三区分圆教与别教,认为两者的表述模式分别为"诡谲的即"与"超越的分解"。圆教对于一切法包括知识在内的看法,与别教不同,圆教"性具善恶"的理论使得知识等染污法具有本体论上的"永恒的必然性",而非别教下的"辩证的必然性";其起现知识等染污法是"任运而现",而非别教下的"作意而现";其视识心为觉悟后智慧之异名,而非别教之视识心为必定有碍而要"破识显智"。"良知坎陷论"对于知识、认识心的看法更接近别教而非圆教,牟宗三对此似并未从判教的角度予以深入反思,而只是以圆教理论来处理德福关系问题。本文扩展牟宗三的圆教理论,用以处理"良知"与知识、识心的关系问题,以勾勒牟宗三的"圆教智识论",这是不同于"圆善论"的新拓展。     

组织情境下的不道德行为现象:来自道德推脱理论的解释

为什么企业中的不道德行为会屡屡发生?这是一直以来困扰组织管理实践者和学者们的难题,不道德行为的发生与发展机制已经成为心理学研究的一个重要领域。其中,心理学视角下的道德推脱理论为这一难题提供了解释思路。在企业的现实情况中,可以从员工个体和组织领导两方面维度研究各自对应的组织情境因素通过道德推脱机制对不道德行为产生的影响。未来研究的关键在于探讨和实证检验组织情境下道德推脱机制的选择偏好对不道德行为的影响作用,不断丰富和加强道德推脱对员工个体以及领导不道德行为影响机理的研究。     

The cost of thinking about false beliefs: evidence from adults' performance on a non-inferential theory of mind task

Much of what we know about other people's beliefs comes non-inferentially from what people tell us. Developmental research suggests that 3-year-olds have difficulty processing such information: they suffer interference from their own knowledge of reality when told about someone's false belief (e.g., [Wellman, H. M., & Bartsch, K. (1988). Young children's reasoning about beliefs. Cognition, 30, 239-277.]). The current studies examined for the first time whether similar interference occurs in adult participants. In two experiments participants read sentences describing the real colour of an object and a man's false belief about the colour of the object, then judged the accuracy of a picture probe depicting either reality or the man's belief. Processing costs for picture probes depicting reality were consistently greater in this false belief condition than in a matched control condition in which the sentences described the real colour of one object and a man's unrelated belief about the colour of another object. A similar pattern was observed for picture probes depicting the man's belief in most cases. Processing costs were not sensitive to the time available for encoding the information presented in the sentences: costs were observed when participants read the sentences at their own pace (Experiment 1) or at a faster or a slower pace (Experiment 2). This suggests that adults' difficulty was not with encoding information about reality and a conflicting false belief, but with holding this information in mind and using it to inform a subsequent judgement.     

Theory of mind and epistemological development: the relation between children's second-order false-belief understanding and their ability to reason about evidence

The study investigates the hypothesis that children's ability to attribute second-order beliefs facilitates their understanding of evidence, as seen in the ability to distinguish between causes and reasons. Seventy-four children 5–7 yr old were given belief and evidence tests. The belief tests assessed their ability to represent and reason from second-order false-beliefs, and the evidence tests assessed their ability to distinguish between the cause of a situation and a person's reason for believing it. The relation between performance on the two tests was determined, taking into account general language and non-verbal reasoning abilities. Results show that performance on the belief test and on the evidence part of the evidence test improved significantly over the age range, and that a significant proportion of variance in the evidence test scores is accounted for by second-order false-belief understanding, over and above that accounted for by general language and non-verbal abilities. The argument is made that second-order false-belief understanding is fundamental to children's epistemological development, underlying not just their understanding of evidence, but also their understanding of inference and truth.     

The ethic of care development: a longitudinal study of moral reasoning among practical-nursing, social-work and law-enforcement students

The study investigated changes in care-based moral reasoning, in the context of justice development over the 2-year period among practical-nursing, bachelor-degree social-work and law-enforcement students (N = 59). Main measures were Skoe's Ethic of Care Interview and Colby et al.'s Moral Judgment Interview. Of the participants 34% progressed in care reasoning, and 48% in justice reasoning. Social-work and nursing students progressed in care reasoning, and all groups progressed in justice reasoning. One participant (1.7%) regressed in care reasoning. Care and justice reasoning were parallel in terms of internal consistency, and they were positively related to each other. Findings suggest that care reasoning follows a developmental sequence, involving three main and two transitional levels, as suggested by Gilligan (1982). Main levels include self-concern (Level 1), caring for others (Level 2), and balanced caring for self and others (Level 3).     

The relationship between theory of mind and episodic memory: evidence for the development of autonoetic consciousness

The study investigated a link between theory of mind and episodic memory involving autonoetic consciousness (). Eighty-nine Japanese 4- to 6-year-olds received two versions of a false belief task, a task of aspectuality or knowledge origins, and four memory tests. After controlling for age, most theory of mind abilities showed no interrelations, and own and other's belief understandings in deceptive appearance tasks were solely related to source memory, but not to free recall, temporal ordering, or working memory. Moreover, even when age and verbal intelligence were controlled, the association between representational change and source memory was highly significant in 6-year-olds but not in 4- and 5-year-olds. Results suggest that during development only a particular kind of theory of mind ability is integrated with episodic memory.     

易哲学发展史之一嬗变--陆王心学的易哲学思想探析

陆王心学的易哲学思想的出现,伴随了一定的时代特点,可谓是易哲学史上继王弼义理易之后的一次深刻嬗变.这表现为其以心释易统易、工夫简易直截的鲜明特征,其中蕴涵了心学派易学对象数易及程朱义理易的解构以及为一般易学研究所忽略的易佛沟通问题.从陆王心学的易哲学思想里面,我们可以发现,心学在宋时的诞生以及它最终的衰微,同样不是一个偶然的现象,它在解构"传统"易学的同时也解构了自身.     

The molecules of social recognition memory: implications for social cognition, extended mind, and neuroethics

Social cognition, cognitive neuroscience, and neuroethics have reached a synthesis of late, but some troubling features are present. The neuroscience that currently dominates the study of social cognition is exclusively cognitive neuroscience, as contrasted with the cellular and increasingly molecular emphasis that has gripped mainstream neuroscience over the past three decades. Furthermore, the recent field of molecular and cellular cognition has begun to unravel some molecular mechanisms involved in social cognition, especially pertaining to the consolidation of memories of particular conspecific organisms. Some new experimental techniques for positive interventions into these hypothesized mechanisms offer opportunities for establishing direct causal linkages between intra-neuronal molecular events and the behaviors used to measure social cognitive phenomena. Predicted results from an experiment described below also cast doubt on the application of the “extended mind” approach from recent cognitive science to ground the neuroscience of social cognition. Since neuroethics relies heavily on our best neuroscience of social cognition, that field may soon need to extend its attention beyond cognitive neuroscience, and into neuroscience’s cellular and molecular mainstream.     

Homophobic bullying and victimization among adolescents: The role of prejudice,moral disengagement,and sexual orientation

Abstract

Bullying is associated with harmful consequences for those who are involved, in particular for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and sexually questioning (LGBQ) adolescents, who are teased for their sexual orientation. Not only LGBQ youth may experience homophobic bullying, but also students who are perceived as not conforming to traditional masculine/feminine gender role expectations. Wrong beliefs, prejudices, and moral disengagement may account for the perpetration of homophobic bullying. The present work aims at investigating whether (boys and girls) heterosexual and LGBQ adolescents were differently involved in homophobic and non-homophobic bullying and victimization and whether biological sex and sexual orientation moderated the relationships between prejudice and moral disengagement and involvement in homophobic bullying and victimization. Participants were 197 adolescents (70 boys, 127 girls), aged 15–18 years (M = 16.32); 46 of them defined themselves as LGBQ people. They responded to questionnaires about bullying and victimization, prejudice against homosexuality, and moral disengagement in situations involving sexual orientation. Results of the univariate analyses pointed to a higher homophobic and non-homophobic victimization among LGBQ adolescents than among their heterosexual counterparts. In the regressions, homophobic bullying was associated with being male and heterosexual, and with moral disengagement, whereas homophobic victimization was related to a low level of prejudice, in particular for LGBQ youths. The findings underscore the importance of examining prejudice and moral disengagement when studying homophobic bullying and victimization and point to the need for developing intervention programs.     

道德概念垂直空间隐喻理解中的映射:双向性及不平衡性

通过4个实验考察道德概念垂直空间隐喻理解中的映射机制和特征。实验1采用空间Stroop范式,发现被试判断完道德词后,对判断随后呈现在屏幕上方或下方字母的反应时的差异不显著,没有发现词汇类型对空间位置的影响。实验2采用有意识迫选法,要求被试出声读出屏幕中央的道德词后,对屏幕上方或下方的希腊语非词进行二择一迫选,发现被试读出道德词后倾向于选择屏幕上方的非词,读出不道德词后倾向于选择屏幕下方的非词。实验3仍采用Stroop范式,发现被试做出空间"上"的判断后,对随后道德词的词义判断反应时显著快于不道德词,做出空间"下"的判断后,对不道德词的反应时显著快于道德词。实验4探讨空间位置是否会对判断人物的道德性产生影响,结果发现被试倾向于认为屏幕上方的人物是道德的,而屏幕下方的人物是不道德的。4个实验的结果表明,在道德概念垂直空间隐喻的理解中,映射的方式是灵活的、双向的,既可以由始源域向目标域映射,也可以由目标域向始源域映射,但两个方向上的映射力量是不平衡的。