Effects of environmental context manipulated by the combination of place and task on free recall

Three experiments, using a 2 (study context) × 2 (test context) between‐subjects design, were conducted to examine the effects of environmental context manipulated by the combination of two contextual elements, place and task, on free recall. Undergraduates individually studied nouns and received a free‐recall test, with a 10‐minute filled retention interval. The contexts were manipulated by the combination of task and place in Experiment 1, by place alone in Experiment 2, and by task alone in Experiment 3. For the manipulation of place and task, two perceptually distinctive places and two distinctive tasks (a calculation task and a fine‐motor task) were used. Tasks were imposed before and after studying target items and before a free‐recall test. Significant environmental‐context effects were yielded in Experiment 1, but not in the other experiments. The implications of the results are discussed.     

Influences of environmental context on the recency effect in free recall

A total of 208 undergraduate participants incidentally encoded a list of seven pairs of familiar words in two experiments. A 30-sec calculation task was imposed before and after each pair was encoded. Participants received a free recall test 24 h (Experiment 1) or 10 min (Experiment 2) after the encoding session, under conditions in which the original environmental context was reinstated or not. The environmental context was manipulated in terms of the combination of the physical features of the room, the subsidiary task conducted, the experimenter (Experiment 1), or background music (Experiment 2). A recency effect appeared when the original environmental context was reinstated in both experiments, even though the IPI/RI ratio was too small to produce recency effects according to the ratio rule. The results imply that the environmental context should be taken into account for the recency effect.     

Study-time effect on free recall within and out of context

Three experiments examined whether or not the study-time effect, which was observed when recall took place in the original environmental context, was eliminated or markedly diminished when recall took place in a different environmental context. A total of 456 undergraduates studied a list of words for either a short or long study time before receiving an oral free recall test under conditions where the original environmental context was or was not reinstated. Environmental context was manipulated by the combination of physical features of the room, subsidiary task, and experimenter. Inter-item association was minimised in Experiment 1, and free recall performance was measured independently of inter-item association in Experiments 2 and 3. The results were: (1) a greater study-time effect was found when the original context was reinstated than when it was not reinstated, and (2) the study-time effect disappeared when neither contextual nor inter-item associative cues were available. The results suggest that environmental context is involved in the production of the study-time effect.     

Study-time effect on free recall within and out of context

Three experiments examined whether or not the study-time effect, which was observed when recall took place in the original environmental context, was eliminated or markedly diminished when recall took place in a different environmental context. A total of 456 undergraduates studied a list of words for either a short or long study time before receiving an oral free recall test under conditions where the original environmental context was or was not reinstated. Environmental context was manipulated by the combination of physical features of the room, subsidiary task, and experimenter. Inter-item association was minimised in Experiment 1, and free recall performance was measured independently of inter-item association in Experiments 2 and 3. The results were: (1) a greater study-time effect was found when the original context was reinstated than when it was not reinstated, and (2) the study-time effect disappeared when neither contextual nor inter-item associative cues were available. The results suggest that environmental context is involved in the production of the study-time effect.     

Effects of context variation, intracategory variation, and spacing on the free recall of pictures

Abstract.— Two experiments examined the effects of encoding variability on the free recall of pictures. In Expt. I, drawn objects were presented 3 times in different pictorial contexts (RV) or in the same contexts (RR). In Expt. II, repeated stimuli were 3 different specimens of the same object category (VR) or the same object presented 3 times (RR). Spacing of repetitions was varied from zero to 15, and a mixed-list design was used. Both RV and VR items tended to be recalled better than and prior to RR items. Recall of RR and of VR items increased with increasing spacing, but recall of RV items showed no spacing effect. In a second recall test, preceded by 4 min of "thinking about" the pictures, the only remaining effect of spacing or of context variation was a low recall of massed RR items. VR items were still recalled better than and prior to RR items. It is suggested that spacing, and variation of the external context of pictures, facilitate retrieval when the time and effort spent on recall is limited, by increasing the numberlvariety of potential recall cues stored together with item information.     

An observation on the role of context variability in free recall

The authors conducted 3 experiments investigating the effect of context variability and word frequency on free recall. Context variability refers to the number of pre-experimental contexts in which a given word is experienced. Both between-subjects and within-subjects manipulations of context variability demonstrated a distinct advantage for low context variability words. Standard word frequency effects were obtained in 2 of the 3 experiments, but the common finding of no word frequency differences in mixed lists of high and low word frequency may depend on the level (low vs. high) of context variability. The authors speculate that the advantage for low context variability items may accrue from better item-to-list context associations or better storage of contextual information as a consequence of the smaller pre-experimental contextual fan that these items possess.     

Linguistic context and children's recall in a probe word task

A probe word task was used to test first-, third-, and fifth-grade children's recall of words in varying linguistic contexts. Consistent with expectations based on short-term memory considerations, words that occurred in meaningful sentence contexts were better recalled than those appearing in strings of unrelated words, and words that appeared toward the end of the sentence or string were better recalled than those occurring toward the beginning. At the same time, the effects of prior text on recall, seen clearly in tasks used in constructive memory research, were not present in this short-term memory task. These findings suggest that while within-sentence semantic relational and syntactic information may be used for partial analysis while material is still in working memory, this state does not permit access to already analyzed information in prior text.The authors express appreciation to Richard Schwartz, Ronnie Wilbur, and Harlan Schweer for their suggestions throughout the course of the study.     

Concreteness and item-to-list context associations in the free recall of items differing in context variability

Context variability can be defined as the number of preexperimental contexts in which a given concept appears. Following M. Steyvers and K. J. Malmberg's (2003) work, the authors have shown that concepts that are experienced in fewer preexperimental contexts generally are better remembered in episodic memory tasks than concepts that are experienced in a greater number of preexperimental contexts. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate that low context variability confers its memorial advantage because of stronger item-to-list context associations as compared with high context variability. Three experiments that use environmental context changes from study to test demonstrate that the low context variability advantage is eliminated when item-to-list context associations are not available because of environmental changes at test. In addition, the low context variability advantage is eliminated when inward processing at study prevents the formation of item-to-list context associations.     

Environmental context effects of background color in free recall

In four experiments, we investigated background-color context effects in free recall. A total of 194 undergraduates studied words presented one by one against a background color, and oral free recall was tested after a 30-sec filled retention interval. A signal for recall was presented against a background color throughout the test. Recalled items were classified as same- and different-context items according to whether the background colors at study and test were the same or different. Significant context effects were found in Experiments I and 2, in which two background colors were randomly alternated word by word. No context effects were found in Experiments 3 and 4, in which a common background color was presented for all items (Experiment 3) or for a number of successive items (Experiment 4). The results indicate that a change in background colors is necessary and sufficient to produce context effects. Implications of the present findings are discussed.     

Examining the relationship between free recall and immediate serial recall: the effect of concurrent task performance

In 3 experiments, participants saw lists of 16 words for free recall with or without a 6-digit immediate serial recall (ISR) task after each word. Free recall was performed under standard visual silent and spoken-aloud conditions (Experiment 1), overt rehearsal conditions (Experiment 2), and fixed rehearsal conditions (Experiment 3). The authors found that in each experiment, there was no effect of ISR on the magnitude of the recency effect, but interleaved ISR disrupted free recall of those words that would otherwise be rehearsed. The authors conclude that ISR and recency cannot both be outputs from a unitary limited-capacity short-term memory store and discuss the possibility that the process of rehearsal may be common to both tasks.     

Effects of spatial context during acquisition on the recall of attributive information

We found that learners were sensitive to the spatial context in which various information was obtained and that they could use it symbolically to aid recall even when spatial cues were not available during testing. In three experiments, televised and purely aural statements made by various speakers were presented at distinct locations in the recipient's immediate surroundings. This was found to increase attributive recall compared to (a) all information sources in a single place, (b) information sources in several places but with place not consistently linked with information sources, and (c) use of a nonspatial stimulus context consistently associated with information source, such as the physical appearance of announcers. Theoretically, we conclude, with Hasher and Zacks, the place provides especially privileged cues and that not all content-correlated background stimuli are equipotent cues in associative learning. Practically, we recommend that in order to remember who said what, it helps to have speakers in separate and distinct places.     

Developmental changes in free recall: The interaction of task structure and age

Free-recall learning and organization were measured for 3rd, 7th, and 11th graders under conditions which varied the type and amount of task structure. Task structure for the input or list-presentation phase was manipulated by using a random, constant, or alphabetic item sequence across trials. Task structure for the output or recall phase was manipulated by providing standard instructions or instructions which suggested the possible use of an alphabetic ordering scheme. Recall performance and organization showed an interaction between age and both manipulations of task structure. The 3rd graders required the maximal amount of task structure (alphabetic order with alphabetic instructions) to demonstrate recall facilitation relative to the completely unstructured control condition. The 7th graders showed recall facilitation for intermediate and high levels of task structure, and the 11th graders showed recall facilitation for low, intermediate, and high levels of task structure. The results are related to current hypotheses about developmental changes in recall performance and their relationship to changes in the systematic use of organizational strategies.     

The effects of concurrent secondary tasks on the use of imagery in a free recall task

An attempt was made to evaluate Paivio's view that the superior recall of High-I words compared to that of Low-I words can be ascribed to the fact that imagery is available as an additional encoding dimension in the High-I materials. An experiment is reported which investigated the effects of two types of secondary task on the free recall of word lists consisting of equal numbers of items of high and low imagery. One secondary task was intended to prevent the use of imagery during acquisition. Recall of the High-I items was selectively impaired in the presence of the image inhibiting secondary task. As performance on the secondary task improved in some subjects over 3 trials, it was accompanied by improved recall of the High-I words.     

The effect of manipulated success ratios on task preference

The hypothesis that success influences task preferences was tested by subjecting 230 Ss to three different success-failure reinforcement schedules and observing subsequent preferences for the tasks concerned. Success ratios of 85-15%, 70-30%, and 50-50% in tasks dealing with unpreferred stimuli were used. Results supported the hypothesis: the probability of change in task preference was greatest under high success reinforcement ratio conditions.     

Effects of alcohol and nicotine on free recall of relevant cues

It is proposed that alcohol and nicotine will affect free recall of relevant cues and that these effects are mediated by changes in level of arousal. Alcohol (0.0 ml, 0.97 ml, or 2.33 ml per kg of body weight) and nicotine (no cigarettes, or two cigarettes each containing 1.3 mg of nicotine) were administered either individually or jointly to six groups of 15 men, such that different combinations of alcohol and nicotine induced different levels of arousal. Since subjects performed at chance level on recall of word-color, which constituted the irrelevant cue, no conclusions regarding the effect of the drugs on recall of irrelevant cues could be drawn. Under conditions of high arousal, induced by the administration of nicotine or a low dose of alcohol, immediate free recall of 20 adjectives was superior to recall in the low-arousal conditions (a moderate dose of alcohol administered either singly or in conjunction with nicotine) and in the control group. This finding is in line with the prediction that arousal, induced by nicotine or a low alcohol dose enhances attention to high-priority task components.     

Prototypicality and personality: Effects on free recall and personality impressions

An experiment was performed to test the hypothesis that it is easier to process information about characters who fit well with and are, therefore, “prototypical” of shared beliefs about various personality types. Character prototypicality was manipulated in a free recall and personality impression paradigm through variations in the consistency of a character's identification with preexisting beliefs about two personality-type categories—extraversion and introversion. Subjects also were given information about each character that varied in degree of abstraction from traits to concrete behavior. As predicted, both the amount and nature of the information correctly recalled were significantly affected by the consistency of the character's identification with extraversion or with introversion. Character consistency also significantly affected the amount of material written in the personality impressions and the tendency to qualify the generality of the impressions. The results support a model in which incoming data about personality are coded, structured, elaborated, and remembered according to the quality of their match with preexisting beliefs about various personality types.     

Effects of context on recollection and familiarity experiences are task dependent

The influence of test context on reports of recollection and familiarity depends on how these subjective recognition experiences are conceptualized and measured. Bodner and Lindsay (2003) found that critical items elicited more remember judgments but fewer know judgments in a less (vs. more) memorable context. In contrast, Tousignant and Bodner (2012) found that independent ratings of recollection and familiarity were both higher in a less memorable context. We replicated the dissociative pattern with judgments using recollect/familiar labels (Experiment 1), and in a novel R/F/B task that added a “both” option to eliminate the mutual exclusivity between the recollect and familiar options (Experiment 2). Adding a “guess” option eliminated these context effects (Experiment 3), however whether allowing guesses “cleans up” or “desensitizes” recollection and familiarity judgments remains unclear. Determining which task variants provide appropriate measures of subjective recognition experiences will require an examination of additional dissociations and triangulation with other measures.     

Arousal and memory: phasic measures of arousal in a free recall task.

EEG alpha activity and skin potential were monitored during word presentation in a single trial free recall task. Phasic changes in EEG alpha and skin potential, co-occurring with word onset, were positively related to recall at an immediate retention interval (2 min) but not after a delay (45 min). The results were interpreted as supporting the extension of Routtenberg's (1968) two-arousal system hypothesis to human memory. Arousal was viewed as affecting memory during the attribute encoding stage of memory storage.     

Unmasking the component-general and component-specific aspects of primary and secondary memory in the immediate free recall task

The immediate free recall (IFR) task has been commonly used to estimate the capacities of the primary memory (PM) and secondary memory (SM) components of working memory (WM). Using this method, the correlation between estimates of the PM and SM components has hovered around zero, suggesting that PM and SM represent fully distinct and dissociable components of WM. However, this conclusion has conflicted with more recent studies that have observed moderately strong, positive correlations between PM and SM when separate attention and retrieval tasks are used to estimate these capacities, suggesting that PM and SM represent at least some related capacities. The present study attempted to resolve this empirical discrepancy by investigating the extent to which the relation between estimates of PM and SM might be suppressed by a third variable that operates during the recall portion of the IFR task. This third variable was termed “strength of recency” (SOR) in the present study as it reflected differences in the extent to which individuals used the same experimentally-induced recency recall initiation strategy. As predicted, the present findings showed that the positive correlation between estimates of PM and SM grew from small to medium when the indirect effect of SOR was controlled across two separate sets of studies. This finding is important because it provides stronger support for the distinction between “component-general” and “component-specific” aspects of PM and SM; furthermore, a proof is presented that demonstrates a limitation of using regression techniques to differentiate general and specific aspects of these components.