Ego identity, egocentrism, and formal operations

This study examined the relationship between ego identity and formal operations and egocentrism in an adolescent population. Results indicated significant positive correlations between ego identity and formal operations and between ego identity and grade in school. Multiple regression analysis revealed that grade in school explained 21 percent of the variance while formal operational thinking, egocentrism, and sex accounted for only an additional 2 percent of the variance.     

The conceptual commonality between impulsiveness as a personality trait and as an ego development stage

This research was an attempt to demonstrate the conceptual commonality between impulsiveness as a trait and as an ego development stage through correlations on measures of both. An Eysenckian measure of broad trait impulsiveness (Imp_B) consisting of four impulsiveness subscales, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) of ego development were administered to 62 male students and 101 female students distributed across three different educational levels (Junior High, Senior High and College). Significant correlations between Imp_B and the WUSCT (-0.23 for the males and -0.31 for the females) supported the hypothesized commonality. Correlations between the WUSCT and the four impulsiveness subscales indicated that Narrow Impulsiveness and Risk-taking were more indicative of ego development than Non-planning or Liveliness. Age trends in the patterns of correlations demonstrated that the commonality between trait impulsiveness and ego development was limited to the early stages of ego development. Sex differences on a number of trait measures and on the WUSCT indicated that males lag behind females in ego development during adolescence. It was hypothesized that the aspect of impulsiveness most indicative of ego development was an unsocialized aspect which might be captured by Eysenck's dimension of psychoticism (P). Correlations between P and WUSCT supported this hypothesis (-0.49 for the males and -0.29 for the females). P apparently has more concept commonality with ego development than has trait impulsiveness. Age trends and sex differences in impulsiveness, psychoticism, and aggressiveness were discussed. It was argued that these personality characteristics would be better understood if explored within a developmental framework such as ego development.     

Adolescent identity formation: a Swedish study of identity status using the EOM-EIS-II

The aim of this study was to examine ego identity status among Swedish adolescents using the EOM-EIS-II. Identity status scores and distributions were examined for 222 (108 female, 114 male) Swedish high school students. Identity status differences were found between genders. There was a greater likelihood of female adolescents being categorized as moratoriums than were males, and there was a greater likelihood of males being categorized as diffusions than were females. Statistically significant differences were found between genders on the following subscales: moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion. No statistically significant differences were found between females and males on the identity achievement subscale. To achieve a preliminary construct validation of the results from the EOM-EIS-II, four of the 222 participants were also assessed using Marcia's identity status interview. A fairly good accordance between the interview assessment of identity status and the EOM-EIS-II assessment were found. Interview results showed differences between the interviewers on each subscale (IA, M, F, and D). The same differences were detected on three of four subscales when assessing these individuals' identity statuses using the EOM-EIS-II.     

Exploration as a predictor of congruence in adolescents' career choices

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that adolescents who explore a variety of career alternatives will make career choices that are more congruent with their personality styles than will adolescents who explore less broadly. The sample of 57 female and 45 male high school seniors (mean age = 17.6 years) completed an ego identity interview, from which each occupation they reported considering was coded for four dimensions: occupational prestige, substantive complexity, interest environment, and gender dominance. Participants also completed the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory and a verbal ability measure. Two indices were constructed to assess the degree of congruence between the adolescent's primary career choice and personality style. Regression analyses indicated that breadth of exploration in the four career dimensions, particularly in gender dominance exploration, was predictive of congruence for males and females.     

Psychosocial development, self-concept, and gender

Undergraduate students (N = 88; 51 males and 37 females) completed the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS; Fitts, 1965) and the identity versus identity diffusion and intimacy versus isolation scales from Constantinople's (1969) Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD). Strong positive correlations were found between ego identity and all aspects of self-concept for both males and females. Different results emerged for the intimacy versus isolation crisis, however. For males, all aspects of self-concept were related to a sense of intimacy, but for females intimacy was related only to the behavioral and interpersonal aspects of self-concept. The implications of these findings are discussed and the contingency of intimacy upon ego identity is questioned with regard to females.     

Suicidal tendencies and ego identity in adolescence

Studies distinguishing between adolescent suicide attempters and others usually deal with demographic, physiological, or familial contributing factors. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between ego identity development and suicidal inclinations at adolescence. The main hypothesis was that ego identity formation at adolescence may serve as a "buffering" force by providing stability, continuity, meaningfulness, social recognition, commitment, and inner strength against suicidal attempts. Two groups of adolescents, a suicidal group (n = 10) recruited from mental health clinics and a normative group (n = 30), were matched for intelligence, demographic variables, and socioeconomic status. The Adolescent Ego Identity Scale (AEIS; Tzuriel, 1984) and the Israeli Index of Potential Suicide (IIPS) based on Zung's (1974) scale were administered to both groups. The results indicated that the normative group scored significantly higher than did the suicidal group on all but one of the AEIS factors and lower on the IIPS. A MANOVA carried out on ego identity factors revealed a significant overall difference between the two groups. Univariate analyses indicated that most of the ego identity factors differentiated between the two groups. Negative correlations between AEIS and IIPS were found in both groups, especially between total AEIS score and IIPS in the normative group (r = -.89, p less than .001). The findings in general confirm the "buffering" force hypothesis. These preliminary results are discussed in regard to theoretical and preventive aspects.     

大学生自我同一性与亲子依恋、因果取向之间的关系

通过对536名大学生的问卷调查,考察了大学生的自我同一性状态与亲子依恋、因果取向之间的关系。结果表明:良好的亲子依恋有利于大学生的自我同一性形成,使大学生更可能处于同一性获得状态,避免同一性扩散。除直接影响外,亲子依恋以因果取向中的自主取向和非个人取向为中介对同一性状态产生重要的间接影响,从而揭示了亲子依恋对大学生自我同一性发挥影响的作用方式。     

Reasoning on social dilemmas varying in emotional saliency: an adult developmental perspective

The purpose of this study was to provide age-comparative evidence of social cognitive reasoning in adulthood, as mediated by the emotional saliency of tasks tapping postformal reasoning. Specifically, the tasks focused on the ability to resolve discrepant accounts of the same event sequence. It was assumed that less mature thinking may be more evident in reasoning contexts in which emotional factors play a major role. A postformal coding scheme was used to assess levels of reasoning in an interpersonal context. Tasks were administered to 60 subjects--adolescents and young and middle-aged adults. Measures of formal operations, ego level, and verbal ability were also administered. An interaction was found between age and degree of emotional saliency of the task for reasoning level. Specifically, adolescents performed less well on tasks higher in degree of emotional saliency. In addition, developmental differences in postformal reasoning as a function of age and ego level were found.     

Emotional Separation,Autonomy in Decision-Making,and Psychosocial Adjustment in Adolescence: A Proposed Typology

Adolescence is critical for learning autonomous behavior; however, little research is available on the most appropriate balance of the emotional and behavioral dimensions of autonomy for psychosocial adjustment during this period. In this study we present a novel autonomy typology that combines both these aspects, which can be implemented as autonomy in decision-making and emotional separation. Specifically, examined age differences in emotional separation and autonomy in decision-making during adolescence. We also assessed differences in psychosocial adjustment associated with profiles of autonomy typology, sex, and age. The participants were 567 adolescents (296 males and 271 females), aged between 12 and 18 years (M?=?14.48; SD?=?1.69), recruited in Spanish high schools. Each participant filled out questionnaires on identity commitment, self-esteem, emotional separation and autonomy in decision-making. The results showed that the most advantageous autonomy profile is ‘autonomous in decisions’ (those showing low emotional separation combined with autonomous behavior in decisions) which was associated with higher levels of self-esteem and occupational and ideological identity commitment. In addition, we also concluded that the balance of autonomy affects adjustment throughout adolescence, although early adolescence may be an especially critical period.     

Openness to Experience and Development of Adult Identity

ABSTRACT The formation of ego identity through exploration of alternatives and formation of commitments is a central issue in the transition from adolescence to adulthood (Erikson, 1959, Waterman, 1982) In 59 adults ranging in age from 18 to 30, independent identity scales were found to be positively correlated with age The construct of openness to experience was hypothesized to account for individual differences in identity development As predicted, openness to experience was positively correlated with ratings of current and past identity exploration, and negatively related to intensity of identity commitment A comparison of two methods of measuring ego identity showed that identity rating scales provide a more differentiated assessment of psychosocial development than does the identity status scoring method     

Social desirability and relations between goal orientations and competitive trait anxiety in young athletes

ObjectivesTo examine the impact of a social desirability response set on relations between goal orientation and performance anxiety in youth sports.DesignCorrelational field design.MethodData assessing goal orientation, performance anxiety, and social desirability were obtained from male (n=106) and female (n=75) adolescent athletes (M age=12.1 years; SD=1.3 years).ResultsFemale athletes reported significantly higher levels of task orientation and lower levels of ego orientation and concentration disruption, than males. As predicted, ego orientation was positively correlated with all indices of performance anxiety in males and females. Task orientation was negatively associated with all indices of performance anxiety in males but only concentration disruption in females. Social desirability was negatively related to ego orientation in males and females, and positively related to task orientation in females, but not males. Performance anxiety was negatively related to social desirability in females, but not males. Controlling for social desirability attenuated the observed relations between goal orientations and performance anxiety in females, but not males.ConclusionsThese results suggest the importance of incorporating measures of social desirability when studying psychosocial variables with either positive or negative connotations. Our results suggest that social desirability may contribute to relations between goal orientation and anxiety in athletes, particularly females.     

Developmental Truths in Memories of Childhood and Adolescence

This study of age-related changes in memories of personally important encounters showed “developmental truths,” that is, patterns that converged with prior developmental theories and research. Participants were 47 males and 48 females in their early 20s. An average of 16 memories were collected from each person during an intensive personal interview. Memories were coded for age at the time of the episode, the identity of the other person with whom the study participant was interacting, what the participant wanted from the other person, and the outcome. As expected, memories of encounters with parents and about wanting help prevailed for childhood, whereas memories of encounters with close friends and about wanting intimacy prevailed by mid-adolescence. Memories about wanting to help others were sparse for this young-adult sample, but, like needs for intimacy, increased with age. Although patterns for males tended to be more dramatic than patterns for females, this trend appeared more attributable to actual developmental differences in social dynamics than to differences in the degree to which current concerns intruded into the memory process. The advantages of personally salient, event-specific retrospective reports for understanding personality development and change are discussed.     

FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING IN YOUNG ADULTS AS A FUNCTION OF EDUCATION AND SEX*

The integration of formal operations in a lattice–INRC group structure was tested in young adults. For this purpose the equilibrium in balance, the combination of liquids and the conservation of motion tasks were employed. To test the possibility of differential integration because of differences in developmental history, the factors of education and sex were manipulated systematically. Thus, four groups were constituted of educated males, educated females, uneducated males, and uneducated females, forming a total of 40 subjects. The results revealed a consistent patterning of performance on the three tasks across groups and across subjects which is in disagreement with the Piagetian model. Education and sex were important factors in respect to formal thought attainment. A theory of formal thought spheres is formulated to account for the patterning obtained and the implications for further research discussed.     

Stability and Change of Ego Resiliency From Late Adolescence to Young Adulthood: A Multiperspective Study Using the ER89–R Scale

In this research, we examined the psychometric properties of the Revised Ego Resiliency 89 Scale (ER89–R; Alessandri, Vecchio, Steca, Caprara, & Caprara, 2008), a brief self-report measure of ego resiliency. The scale has been used to assess the development of ego resiliency from late adolescence to emerging adulthood, focusing on different ways to define continuity and change. We analyzed longitudinal self-report data from 267 late adolescents (44% male) using 4 different approaches: factor analysis for testing construct continuity, correlational analysis for examining differential stability, latent growth modeling for analyzing mean level change, and the reliable change index for studying the occurrence of change at the individual level. Converging evidence points to the marked stability of ego resiliency from 16 to 20 years, both for males and females. The scale predicts externalizing and internalizing problems, both concurrently and at 2 and 4 years of distance. Findings suggest that the ER89–R scale represents a valid and reliable instrument that can be fruitfully suited for studying ego resiliency through various developmental stages.     

Interpersonal relationship quality in young adulthood: a gender analysis

This study explored gender differences in the degree to which parent-child dyads and family system variables are associated with relationship quality in late adolescence and early adulthood. It was hypothesized that the quality of mother-child and father-child relationships, as well as family adaptability and family cohesion, would be positively correlated with the quality of intimate relationships in late adolescence and young adulthood. Further, it was hypothesized that correlations would vary according to gender. The sample was composed of 50 males and 48 females between the ages of 18 and 24. The results indicated that the relationship of family factors to the intimate relationships of young adults was similar for males and females. Specifically, a positive relationship with mother and greater adaptability in the family system during adolescence were related to more positive intimate relationships in young adulthood.     

Females excel at basic face perception

Females are generally better than males at recognizing facial emotions. However, it is not entirely clear whether and in what way females may also excel at non-affective face recognition. Here, we tested males and females on two perceptual face recognition tasks that involved only neutral expressions: detection and identity discrimination. On face detection (Experiment 1), females were significantly more accurate than males in detecting upright faces. This gender difference was reduced during inverted face detection, and not present during tree detection, suggesting that the magnitude of the gender difference for performance co-varies with the extent to which face processing mechanisms are involved. On facial identity discrimination (Experiment 2), females again outperformed males, particularly when face images were masked by visual noise, or the delay between comparison face images was extended from 0.5 to 3 s. These results reveal a female advantage in processing face-specific information and underscore the role of perceptual factors in socially relevant gender differences.     

Gender role identity from an ego developmental perspective

This study, designed to respond to current limitations in gender role identity measurement, presents a conceptual and empirical approach to gender role identity that relies on ego developmental theory. To begin the process of construct validation of this approach to gender role identity, gender role identity was examined in relation to ego development, gender, and marital status. Gender role identity was measured via an interview adapted from Waterman and by the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Ego development was assessed via Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development. The sample consisted of 107 young adult men and women, married and single. In support of construct validity, the gender role interview was found to be correlated with the ego development measure. In support of discriminant validity, different patterns of correlates by gender were found between the gender role interview and the Bem Sex Role Inventory.     

Achievement goal orientations and the use of coping strategies among Winter Olympians

Objectives: To examine the relationship between task and ego orientations and the use of stress-coping strategies among athletes participating in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games. We expected that athletes who were high on task and low on ego orientation would employ more problem-solving strategies than athletes with other ego and task profiles. We also expected that athletes high in ego and low in task orientation would employ more emotion-focused strategies than other athletes with other ego and task profiles. Gender differences were also investigated.Design: Cross-sectional, retrospective. Data were collected immediately after the closing of the Olympic Games.Methods: Norwegian athletes (N=69, 50 males and 20 females, mean age=25.2 years) participated in the study. Goal orientations and coping strategies were assessed using questionnaires.Results: After a median split on the task and the ego orientation scales to determine the athletes who were high/low, high/high, low/high or low/low in task and ego orientation respectively, 54 athletes remained in the final analysis. Several separate univariate 2×2 analyses of variance were conducted. High task/low ego orientation was related to the use of active coping and social emotional support, while low task/high ego orientation was related to the use of positive redefinition and growth strategies. High ego orientation was associated with less use of active coping and planning strategies among female athletes, but not among male athletes. Furthermore, high ego orientation in female athletes was related to the use of denial as a coping strategy.Conclusions: The relative strength of high and/or low task and ego orientation has an impact on elite athletes' use of coping strategies in competition. Being high in ego orientation seems to be more influential among female than male elite athletes in their use of coping strategies.     

Control-related beliefs and depressive symptoms in clinic-referred children and adolescents: developmental differences and model specificity

The contingency-competence-control (CCC) model links contingency and competence beliefs to perceived control and, in turn, to depression. However, a developmental perspective suggests that noncontingency may be too abstract a concept to be directly tied to depression before adolescence. We tested the CCC model and this developmental notion, using structural equation modeling, with 360 clinic-referred 8- to 17-year-olds. The CCC model fit the data well for the full sample accounting for 46% of the variance in depression. Separate analyses by age group placed perceived contingency in the best-fit model for adolescents (ages 12-17 years) but not for children (8-11 years). This suggests that abstract cause-effect concepts may have more direct affective impact after the cognitive changes of adolescence (e.g., formal operations) than before. Finally, the CCC model accounted for much more variance in depression than conduct problems, suggesting diagnostic specificity.