Youth at Risk: Another Point of View

In this rejoinder to Tidwell and Corona Garrett (1994), the authors discuss three important aspects of the term at risk that help to clarify its meaning.     

旧证据问题：一种动态的消解方案

旧证据问题是指贝叶斯确证理论在讨论旧证据确证新理论（假说）的问题上将出现不合理的结果,它的消解是贝叶斯确证理论辩护的一个非常重要的环节。本文倡导一种基于Levi理论的动态方案来消解这一问题。在这种方案下,知识汇集的动态性使得旧证据在新理论引入前后的置信概率可能是不相同的,在此基础上我们证明,经新理论扩充后而得到的知识汇集无论是一致扩充还是不一致扩充,均存在一个旧证据E,它对该新理论具有确证作用。     

The Rawls–Harsanyi Dispute: A Moral Point of View

Central to the Rawls–Harsanyi dispute is the question of whether the core modeling device of Rawls' theory of justice, the original position, justifies Rawls' principles of justice, as Rawls suggests, or whether it justifies the average utility principle, as Harsanyi suggests. Many commentators agree with Harsanyi and consider this dispute to be primarily about the correct application of normative decision theory to Rawls' original position. I argue that, if adequately conceived, the Rawls–Harsanyi dispute is not primarily a dispute about the correct application of normative decision theory to Rawls' original position. Instead, Rawls and Harsanyi aim to model different moral ideals, and this difference in their moral assumptions leads them to significantly different conclusions about justice. There is no winner in the Rawls–Harsanyi dispute. Instead, the dispute merely clarifies the moral ideals and their formal representations that need to be assumed in order to justify either Rawls' contractualist principles of justice or the average utility principle. Thus understood, the Rawls–Harsanyi dispute offers a promising starting point for future research that can deepen and enrich our understanding of the demands of justice.     

A Religious Point of View

The purpose of this paper is to show connections between Wittgenstein's approach to philosophy and the writings on religion of two authors whom we know Wittgenstein read and admired: William James and Leo Tolstoy. Wittgenstein stresses certain attitudes toward philosophical ‘problems’ which resemble the attitudes that James and Tolstoy connect with religious faith. There are also similarities of phrases and expressions. It is not possible to say that these writers influenced the way Wittgenstein regarded philosophy, but it suggests that he recognized the similarities between their approaches and his despite the differences in subject. Consequently it helps to clarify why he would speak of his approach to problems as being from ‘a religious point of view’ even though its orientation is not specifically religious.     

一个维特根斯坦主义者眼中的框架问题

框架问题的核心命意乃是：在对智能体的行动进行表征之时,如何能够在有效地表征出行动的效果之时,避免对于其非效果的表征？对于符号主义路数的人工智能研究来说,框架问题的确非常棘手,因为它的存在使得对于行动的知识刻画必须引入大量的框架公理,并由此使得系统的计算负荷剧增。从历史上看,人工智能界赖以解决这个问题的基本路径主要有两条。第一条是诉诸于＂关于惯性的常识律＂或缺省逻辑,即在行动表征中预设：没有被表征式牵涉到的＂世界其余部分＂都将保持惯性。另一条路径则采纳了海耶斯的＂素朴物理学＂表征方案,即试图把日常物理学知识全部用谓词逻辑公理化,让系统自动推算出哪些动作会导致哪些结果。本文将论证,这两条道路其实都走不通。在此基础上,本文将从维特根斯坦的《论确定性》中寻找灵感,建立一个关于信念网动力学模型——在这个模型中,某些知识节点的激发只会导致某些与之毗邻的节点的激发,因此,对于特定问题求解路径的表征,就能够避免对于一个更大范围内的知识网络的牵涉。框架问题也有望借助于这个模型得到解决。最后,我将利用＂非公理推演系统＂（NARS）为这个模型提供一种尽量逼真的工程学模拟。     

Unity of Psychology: A Cross-cultural Point of View

To broadly communicate our view of the unity of psychology, the standpoint of recognized cross-cultural and diverse national psychologists is reviewed. Unity is analyzed internationally in terms of: (a) educational programme contents; (b) levels of training; (c) applications; (d) politics; (e) statutory objectives; and (f) theoretical models. Neither practical nor theoretical issues need disrupt this unity.     

从本体-历史的观点看

一、科学哲学的岔路半个多世纪前问世的奎因的那本《从逻辑的观点看》(1953),至今还影响着我们:从整体主义的观点出发启迪了诸多后实证主义的灵感。与奎因的本体-逻辑的与认识-逻辑的观点不同,本文想要阐述的是一种本体-历史的观点。这是两类不同性质的理论。我认为,本体-历史的观点同样也适     

From the Victim's Point of View

In this keynote speech to the American Society for Bioethics and Humanities in October, 1999, Hilfiker suggests that the underlying goal of teaching ethics should be to develop in those who care for others an empathy with the outsider. Unless care givers cannot see the world from the victim's point of view, they will have a difficult time developing an ethical framework in which to work. In this paper, Hilfiker tells the story of how he came to find the victim's point of view through his own experiences as a physician and through the work of Dorothee Sölle, René Girard, and John Rawls.     

萨特存在主义的人学:在笛卡尔式视野中

萨特的存在主义是在笛卡尔视角中的世俗存在主义。在此基础上建立起来的人道集笛卡尔传统和存在主义的人道主义理念于一身。人的在世,从提问开始。提问产生虚无和否定,人是对自己采取否定的态度存在,是自为的存在。     

编辑职业道德：从经济学的角度审视

长期以来,人们从各个角度来谈论职业道德,试医用各种理论来解释职业道德。在一个以经济发展为驱动力和刚刚转轨的社会中,我们不妨从经济学的角度来剖析编辑职业道德,也许更有意义。     

The Systemic View of Violence: An Ethical Perspective

Systems theory has been critiqued by a number of feminist writers who felt that it did not adequately address the issues of violence and male domination in families. This essay argues that systems theory describes the world from an "exogenic" perspective — the scientific world of nature, which is intrinsically amoral. In the exogenic world all causality is circular, as nature maintains a system that has survived for billions of years. Bateson found "mind" to be within the system of nature, implying that mind must also be amoral. However, most people view the world from an "endogenic" perspective, a personal construction of reality molded by the environment in which they live, and which inevitably incorporates morality. Humans believe that violence is wrong, not for intellectual reasons, but for moral reasons. Implications for therapy are presented. A postmodern or constructivist position is taken as a way to acknowledge the influence of relationships on problems and definitions of problems, while allowing for a moral or legal consensus to pervade the therapeutic enterprise.     

Keeping Covenants and Confidence Sacred: One Point of View

In this age of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) disease, counselors struggle with the dilemma of whether to breach therapeutic confidence in the instance when a client who is HIV infected has informed the counselor of continued sexual activity or injectable substance-using activity without informing his or her partner(s) of this HIV-positive sero-status (being infected with HIV). As more of the one million people infected with HIV become aware of their sero-status, many will seek psychotherapeutic services. Thus, such ethical dilemmas will become intensified. Ethics of covenant have much to contribute to professional consideration of such dilemmas.     

庄子论真人与真知的关系——《大宗师》篇且有真人而后有真知命题的现代诠释

千百年来,《庄子》一书一直成为中国思想家们不断获得新的思想启示意义的宝库。今天,在比较哲学的视域里,《庄子》一书中的诸多哲学命题将会获得广泛的现代意义,从而对当今人们的生活方式产生极有价值的启迪意义。本文将着力阐发《庄子·大宗师》篇“且有真人而后有真知”命题的现代启示意义。     

Extensions of the Finitist Point of View

Hilbert developed his famous finitist point of view in several essays in the 1920s. In this paper, we discuss various extensions of it, with particular emphasis on those suggested by Hilbert and Bernays in Grundlagen der Mathematik (vol. I 1934, vol. II 1939). The paper is in three sections. The first deals with Hilbert's introduction of a restricted ω -rule in his 1931 paper ‘Die Grundlegung der elementaren Zahlenlehre’. The main question we discuss here is whether the finitist (meta-)mathematician would be entitled to accept this rule as a finitary rule of inference. In the second section, we assess the strength of finitist metamathematics in Hilbert and Bernays 1934. The third and final section is devoted to the second volume of Grundlagen der Mathematik. For preparatory reasons, we first discuss Gentzen's proposal of expanding the range of what can be admitted as finitary in his esssay ‘Die Widerspruchsfreiheit der reinen Zahlentheorie’ (1936). As to Hilbert and Bernays 1939, we end on a ‘critical’ note: however considerable the impact of this work may have been on subsequent developments in metamathematics, there can be no doubt that in it the ideals of Hilbert's original finitism have fallen victim to sheer proof-theoretic pragmatism.     

Videotaped Confessions: The Impact of Camera Point of View on Judgments of Coercion1

Twenty-four college students viewed one of three videotapes of a mock police interrogation that ended in a confession. In one videotape the camera was focused primarily on the “suspect”; in a second the camera was focused primarily on the “detective”; and in the third the camera was focused on the suspect and detective equally. Subjects in the suspect-focus condition subsequently judged that the confession was elicited by means of a small degree of coercion; subjects in the equal-focus condition judged that it was elicited by means of a moderate degree of coercion; and subjects in the detective-focus condition judged that it was elicited by means of a large degree of coercion. It is argued that the effect of camera point of view on judgments of coercion is mediated by causal attributions. Consistent with this interpretation, camera point of view also had a significant effect on subjects' attributions for the suspect's behavior, with subjects in the suspect-focus condition making the most dispositional attributions and subjects in the detective-focus condition making the least dispositional attributions. Alternative explanations are considered and limitations of the present research are discussed. It is concluded that to the extent that interrogations are videotaped with the camera focused on the suspect, judges and/ or jurors may be biased to perceive a confession as voluntary.     

从全球化看当代社会创新

从80年代中后期开始,全球化与社会创新这两个话题几乎同时成为话语热点,被人们广泛地运用于当代社会历史新趋势的描述和分析当中。“创新”是一个相对概念而不是绝对概念。从历时性的角度看,相对于传统而言,前所未有的就是创新;从共时性的角度看,相对于同一或单一化而言,与众不同的就是创新;从方法论的角度看,相对于新的问题和挑战而言,解决问题、迎接挑战必然需要创新性的手段和方法。对社会创新来说也是如此。从全球化的角度来看,当代社会创新在这三个意义上都具有充分的内涵。