Conversion and the Family: Chinese Hare Krishnas

The multi-cultural and multi-religious context of the globalised world often results in unlikely interactions between the triad of people, cultures, and religion. The result may be that people embrace divergent systems of beliefs. This article explores the dynamics of such interaction within the private domain of the family, when ethnic Chinese adopt an alien faith, that of the Hare Krishna. Four typologies of interactions between convert and family members are proposed, ranging from the most volatile to the most harmonious. These are categorised as contentious, neutral, accommodative, and supportive. The combinations of factors that lead to each type of interaction, such as family–convert relationship, religious identity of family member, residence of the convert, family members’ perception of the Hare Krishna, and the extent of external practices adopted by the converts, are discussed. In particular, qualitative comparative analysis is applied to investigate how these variables combine to lead to each typology.     

Korean transracial and international adoptees: Ethnic identity and sense of belonging and exclusion in relation to birth and adoptive groups

Past quantitative ethnic identity research on transracial and international adoptees (TRIAs) has focused on their birth culture. Given that adoptees may also identify with their adoptive family’s culture, we examined Korean and White European American ethnic identities in Korean American adoptees. Identity exploration and commitment were significantly positively correlated within each referent group. Results also indicated relatively higher levels of birth group identity exploration and higher adoptive group identity commitment. In addition, we used cluster analysis to create ethnic identity profiles and investigated the relations between identity profiles and sense of belonging and exclusion. Our findings signal a need to support TRIAs to develop inclusive flexible ethnic identities and suggest future research should examine multiple referent groups and the intersection of these identities.     

Ethnic Identity in Jewish Families

Forty-eight Jewish families living in Central New York were interviewed about the development of their ethnic identity. Within each family, parents and children were asked about how they developed their ethnic identity to explore qualitatively how Jewish identity shapes and influences family dynamics. The semi-structured family interviews were coded using a constant comparison methodology. Seven qualitative categories emerged (gendered decisions, negotiating continuity, family of origin, survivors, active learning, traditions, and cultural religion). Jewish identity formation in families and the implications for clinical practice are explored.     

TWO MODELS OF SPIRITUAL JOURNEY: YOGA AND CONFUCIUS

At first glance, to juxtapose the ascetical recommendations of Patanjali and Yoga next to the counsels of Confucius and the classical Chinese tradition seems improbable and even contradictory; indeed, each thrust contrasts very sharply with the other. India's Samkhya-Yoga tradition attests to an inward thrust, to a radical probing of what some have even described as the "frontiers of inner-space". From the very dawn of history, Yogis have pioneered an interior exploration of the psyche and human spirit; ultimately these Yogis proclaim the hidden value of each person, a dimension they call " purusa ". The Sanskrit word purusa has been variously translated as "consciousness", "spirit", "light", or simply as the authentic and genuine identity of the human being. Quite naturally then, the quest for realizing this purusa - identity became the preoccupation and all-consuming goal of the Yogis — even at the cost of an almost total disregard for the social order including the abandonment of such traditional values as our commonly accepted virtues of family, society, and social growth and development.     

Perceptions of ethnic discrimination by minority and majority early adolescents in the Netherlands

This research investigates perceptions of discrimination among ethnic majority and minority group early adolescents (aged between 10 and 12 years) living in the multi‐ethnic context of the Netherlands. In two studies (N = 679 and N = 2630), personal and group discrimination was examined in terms of name‐calling and social exclusion, and in relation to ethnic identity and family allocentrism. All early adolescents reported more group than personal discrimination. The personal‐group discrimination discrepancy (PGDD) was found independently of ethnic group, gender, allocentrism, and ethnic identity. Hence, the PGDD seems a more general phenomenon that already exists among early adolescents and across different domains. However, minority group participants perceived far more discrimination overall than majority group early adolescents, and the Turkish participants reported more discrimination than the Moroccan and Surinamese early adolescents. Furthermore, family allocentrism was positively related to perceived discrimination among all ethnic groups in Study 2 and among the Dutch in Study 1. In agreement with ethnic identity development models, strength of ethnic identity was not related to perceived discrimination. Ethnic identity was, however, positively related to allocentrism. In both studies, ethnic minority group participants had higher scores for allocentrism and for ethnic identity than majority group participants. In addition, boys had stronger ethnic identity than girls and ethnic identity was negatively associated with perceived discrimination for the boys but not for the girls. It is concluded that in order to understand early adolescents' perception of discrimination it is necessary to pay attention to basic (cognitive) tendencies that cross ethnic lines, to cultural and status differences between the majority group and ethnic minorities as a category and between ethnic minority groups, and to within‐group differences or individual level variables.     

Subjective Well-Being in Mexican and Mexican American Women: The Role of Acculturation,Ethnic Identity,Gender Roles,and Perceived Social Support

Latinas experience multiple oppressions and poorer mental health due to their often triple minority status as poor, female, women of color. The present study examined whether identifying with both Mexican culture and the dominant culture (bicultural), having high ethnic identity, identifying with both feminine and masculine behavior (androgynous gender role), and perceiving greater family social support predicted life satisfaction and positive affect in low socioeconomic status, Mexican and Mexican American women (n = 194). Results indicated that greater ethnic identity and greater perceived family social support significantly predicted Mexican and Mexican American women’s life satisfaction. Greater ethnic identity, greater feminine gender identity, greater androgynous gender identity, and greater perceived family social support were significant predictors of positive affect. Furthermore, as expected, social support from family was the most significant predictor for both life satisfaction and positive affect. Implications of the results and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Ethnic identification,religious identity,and psychological well-being among Muslim and Christian Palestinians in Israel

This study examined relationships between ethnic identification, religious identity, and psychological well-being. The participants were 854 indigenous Israeli Palestinians, of whom 520 (36% males and 64% females) were Muslim and 334 (39% males and 61% females) Christian students, respectively. The sample ranged in age between 17 and 38 years, with a mean of 24.31 (SD = 4.43). Measures of Palestinian ethnic identity, religious identity, and psychological well-being were administered to study participants. The analysis revealed that, for each of the Muslim and Christian samples, Palestinian ethnic identity and religious identity were weakly positively correlated, a finding indicating a possible relative independence between these constructs. After partialling out the effect of age and religious identity, increased degrees of Palestinian ethnic identification linked to higher degrees of positive indicators of well-being and to lower degrees of negative indicators of well-being within each of the samples. These findings held, and were even more pronounced, in the case of religious identity, after controlling for age and Palestinian ethnic identity. The study concludes that religious identity may equal or exceed ethnic identity in importance as a feature of minority individuals’ self-concept informing their well-being.     

The Influence of Family Dynamics on Ethnic Identity Among Adult Latinas

The literature on the development of ethnic identity within the young adult years and during childhood is plentiful. There is less research that examines how this development continues beyond young adult or college years. Research suggests that major life events experienced in adulthood could cause individuals to enter a period of identity reconstruction, yet little is known about this process. Because family and/or familism has been established as an important aspect of Latinos’ identities and lived experiences, this study seeks to examine the dimensions around family dynamics and their potential influences on ethnic identity development processes among adult Latinas. Findings indicate that Latinas often make sense of their ethnic identity when major life events associated with family dynamics occur; such as marriage, childbearing, and negotiating relationships with family members as culture is being transmitted across several generations. These findings have implications for understanding adult education students as well as considering the influence of education on the family dynamics of Latinas.     

Ethnic Identity,Family Cohesion,and Symptoms of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Maltreated Youth

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is prevalent among maltreated youth, but little empirical work exists regarding the role of ethnic identity and family cohesion as influential factors among different ethnic groups. This study included an ethnically diverse sample of adolescents affiliated with a state-administered residential facility for maltreated youth. Variables included ethnic identity and family cohesion, as well as symptoms of PTSD, depression, dissociation, and post-traumatic cognitions. The most prominent finding was that low family cohesion predicted greater PTSD symptoms, depression, dissociation, and post-traumatic cognitions. This finding was especially pronounced for multiracial youth. Results are discussed within the context of developmental pathways regarding ethnic identity development in multiracial youth.     

Italian American Ethnic Identity Persistence: A Qualitative Study

This study explores the persistence of ethnic identity among second- and fourth-generation Italian American emerging adults. In particular, the relational and college influences affecting its development were examined. The findings indicate that a distinct Italian American ethnic identity persists in this population, although it evolves with distance from the immigrant generation. We found that Italian American identity is relationally dynamic and shaped by many factors, most notably, family ethnic socialization, peer relationships, college experiences, ethnic pride, exposure to Italian culture, and life transitions. These findings extend our understanding of the cyclical nature of ethnic identity development within a specific ethnic group and the unique cultural forces shaping the identity of Italian Americans.     

The Impact of the Family Environment on the Ethnic Identity Development of Multiethnic College Students

In this qualitative study of 5 multiethnic college students, the findings indicate that family environment played a significant role in the participants' ability to develop secure ethnic identities. The participants who described their family members as supportive of their multiple ethnic backgrounds also felt confident about their ethnic identity, whereas the participants who described their family members as unsupportive of their multiple ethnic backgrounds maintained that they often felt insecure about their ethnic identity.     

Examining Relationships Between Ethnic Identity, Family Environment, and Psychological Outcomes for African American Adolescents

Ethnic identity has been linked to a number of healthy psychological outcomes for African American adolescents. The levels of conflict and cohesion in the family environment have also been found to be predictive of adolescent mental health. This study examined whether the ethnic identity and levels of conflict and cohesion in the family environments were related to adolescents’ psychological adjustment. Participants included 61 African American adolescents, ages 10–14 years old, and their parents. Hierarchical regression models were used to determine the cumulative effects of ethnic identity and family functioning on adolescent mental health, specifically adolescent levels of depression, self-esteem, and interpersonal functioning. Results indicated that having a positive ethnic identity and a cohesive family environment were most strongly associated with psychological adjustment. Implications of these results are discussed in terms of family interventions.     

Acculturation Among Three Racial/Ethnic Groups of Host and Immigrant Adolescents

This study compares Latino host, Latino immigrant, Asian-American host, Asian-American immigrant and European-American host groups of adolescents with respect to four acculturation-related variables: ethnic identity exploration, ethnic identity affirmation/belonging, outgroup orientation, and American identity. Using the five ethno-generational categories as a grouping variable, we conducted analyses of 313 survey responses to the acculturation items at two time periods, 9 weeks apart. Results showed that differences among the three host racial/ethnic groups can best be explained by a group dominance perspective, whereby the two racial/ethnic minority groups are more similar to each other than they are to the European-American group. Furthermore, the relationship between American identity and ethnic identity components is stronger among the three host groups, as compared to the immigrant groups. Implications for future research with adolescent members of the host group whose heritage culture is non-European are drawn.     

Minority Identity Strategies Bound by Prejudice: Restricted Perspectives of People Categorized as Gypsies in Hungary

In this study, we explored the identity strategies of Hungarian Gypsies with different socialization backgrounds, including the degree of majority and minority identifications, the contents of Gypsy identity as well as coping with threatening social situations. Sampling was based on external social categorization: majority members were asked for contacts to Gypsy acquaintances. Questionnaire data were used to assess socialization background, group identification and preferred coping strategies at different levels, while contents of Gypsy identity were explored in an associative network. Results suggest that subjects make an exclusive choice between national and ethnic identities. While all subjects prefer ethnic identity, subjects with different socialization backgrounds follow different identity strategies. In sum, large‐family subjects are emotionally attached to their ethnic group, avoid interaction with the majority and prefer the idea of a multicultural society. Small‐family subjects are emotionally detached from their ethnic group and vote for a homogeneous society. Results are interpreted in terms of integration‐related social policies. While these are aimed at the foundation of a recognized active minority, members of these new generations find the way of recognition in individual assimilation due to the threat of prejudice. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

民族接触减弱民族本质论：文化认同与文化相似性的中介作用

采用问卷法,以911名少数民族和汉族大学生为被试,探讨了民族接触减弱民族本质论及其机制问题。研究1检验了民族接触与民族本质论、民族交往态度的关系,结果表明,少数民族被试的民族接触与民族本质论存在显著负相关,汉族被试存在负相关但不显著;研究2检验了少数民族被试的本民族文化认同和与汉族文化的相似性感知在民族接触和民族本质论之间的中介作用。结果表明,文化认同和文化相似性完全中介了民族接触和民族本质论之间的负相关。文章认为民族接触可以通过增加民族之间文化相似性感知、降低内群体的文化认同而减弱民族本质论信念。最后讨论了本研究在理论和实践方面的贡献,以及存在的局限性。     

Fluid Ethnicity and Ethnic Transcendence in Multiracial Churches

Assumptions of racial essentialism lead to inadequate analysis of multiracial churches. Instead, acknowledging ethnic identity as a negotiated phenomenon encourages a richer investigation of how congregational participation stimulates and redefines a person's racial and ethnic identity. The malleability of ethnic identity is such that it is often obscured in favor of other aspects of self. Ethnographic analysis of two multiracial churches, Mosaic and Oasis, indicates that particularistic ethnic affiliations recede when otherworldly, value-rational interests are emphasized. Ethnic transcendence occurs when members adopt a shared identity based on a uniquely congregational understanding of what it means to be a properly religious person (a proper "Christian,""Jew,""Muslim,""Buddhist," etc.). In short, the distinctive accomplishment of multiracial congregations is the cultivation of an inclusive religious identity that overrides divisive aspects of ethnic identity. Moreover, recognizing the varying salience of racial and ethnic identity evokes greater caution regarding what can be assumed when researchers apply the label "multiracial" to congregations.     

Dissecting life with a Jewish scalpel: a qualitative analysis of Jewish-centered family life

This article highlights findings from a qualitative analysis of the ways in which Jewish families identify how Judaism influences their lives. A theoretical sample of two religious and two cultural families were chosen from a larger sample of 48 Jewish families in Central New York. The qualitative part of this study, which was part of a larger multimethod investigation, was done in order to gather inductively any data that would allow the researchers to build a theory about a particular type of ethnic identity--Jewish identity--and how it affects family dynamics. Eleven categories emerged from this study, which suggest that this particular type of ethnic identity influences many family dynamics, for example, styles of communicating, parenting, values, and family rituals. The participants seem to dissect the world with a "Jewish scalpel." This "scalpel" informs their daily interactions, their parenting styles, and their childrens' self-perceptions.     

The Relationship Between Parenting Behaviour and Ethnic Identity in Chinese-American and Chinese-Australian Adolescents

This study investigated the relationship between four types of parenting behaviour—warmth, control, monitoring, and autonomy-promoting—and two components of ethnic identity—ethnic behaviours/knowledge and ethnic pride—in first- and second-generation Chinese-American and Chinese-Australian high school students. As hypothesized, parenting behaviours did not predict levels of ethnic behaviour/knowledge, but ethnic pride was associated with family environments characterized as warm, controlling, and autonomy-promoting. Neither gender of respondent nor geographical location (United States or Australia) added significantly to the variance in ethnic identity. The study indicates that parenting practices contribute significantly to adolescents' sense of pride and positive evaluation of their ethnic heritage.     

An examination of ethnic identity and self-esteem with diverse populations: exploring variation by ethnicity and geography

The current study examined the relationships among ethnic identity and self-esteem across multiple ethnic groups within two distinct geographical locations (N = 1,344). In the current study, for same ethnic group members, the components of ethnic identity (i.e., exploration, resolution, and affirmation) were differentially related to self-esteem based on geographical context. Furthermore, within each geographical context, the strength of the relation between each ethnic identity component and self-esteem varied based on group membership, suggesting that the variables may be more or less influential on self-esteem depending on one's group membership. Based on these results, the exploration and resolution subscales of the Ethnic Identity scale (EIS) appear to be valid and reliable with diverse samples, whereas support for the affirmation subscale of the EIS is more tenuous. Finally, these findings suggest that ethnic identity may have varying salience and meaning for same ethnic group members in different geographical contexts (e.g., Asian Americans in California vs. Asian Americans in the Midwest).     

The Role of Familial Incarceration and Ethnic Identity in Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempt: Findings from a Longitudinal Study of Latinx Young Adults in California

Suicide is a leading cause of death among young adults; however, contextual risks and cultural factors are rarely studied in the context of ethnic minority suicidal ideation (SI) and suicidal attempt (SA). This study assessed the association between familial incarceration and suicide behaviors and examined ethnic identity as a potential moderator. Data from a longitudinal study of health among Hispanics (n = 1,094) in California were used to test associations between familial incarceration, ethnic identity, and SA and SI, adjusting for demographic factors and covariates. Approximately 18% and 8% of respondents reported SI and SA, respectively. Compared to no incarceration, or the incarceration of a relative, parental incarceration was associated with higher odds (AOR: 2.09, 95% CI: 1.23–3.34) of SI whereas higher affective ethnic identity reduced the odds (AOR: 0.52, 95% CI: 0.31–0.89) of SA. Ethnic identity moderated the association between parental incarceration and SI (AOR: 0.33, 95% CI: 0.13–0.79). Incarceration of a family member can set the stage for exclusion from critical institutions and can have long‐term consequences for adult mental health. Promoting a positive ethnic identity may be a promising prevention strategy that could bolster resilience among at‐risk, urban minority youth.