Characterization of Children's Decision Making: Sensitivity to Punishment Frequency,Not Task Complexity

On a gambling task that models real-life decision making, children between ages 7 and 12 perform like patients with bilateral lesions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), opting for choices that yield high immediate gains in spite of higher future losses (Crone &; Van der Molen, 2004 Crone, E. A. and Van der Molen, M. W. 2004. Developmental changes in decision-making: Performance on a gambling task previously shown to rely on ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25(3): 251–279. [PUBMED][INFOTRIEVE][CROSSREF][Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The current study set out to characterize developmental changes in decision making by varying task complexity and punishment frequency. Three age groups (7–9 years, 10–12 years, 13–15 years) performed two versions of a computerized variant of the original Iowa gambling task. Task complexity was manipulated by varying the number of choices participants could make. Punishment frequency was manipulated by varying the frequency of delayed punishment. Results showed a developmental increase in the sensitivity to future consequences, which was present only when the punishment was presented infrequently. These results could not be explained by differential sensitivity to task complexity, hypersensitivity to reward, or failure to switch response set after receiving punishment. There was a general pattern of boys outperforming girls by making more advantageous choices over the course of the task. In conclusion, 7–12-year-old children—like VMPFC patients—appear myopic about the future except when the potential for future punishment is high.     

Using a Sharp Instrument to Parse Apart Strategy and Consistency: An Evaluation of PPT and Its Assumptions

Potential Performance Theory (PPT) is a general theory for parsing observed performance into the underlying strategy and the consistency with which it is used. Although empirical research has supported that PPT is useful, it is desirable to have more information about the bias and standard errors of PPT findings. It also is beneficial to know the effects of violations of PPT assumptions. The authors present computer simulations that evaluate bias and standard errors at varying levels of strategy, consistency, and number of trials per participant. The simulations show that, when the assumptions are true, there is very little bias and the standard errors are low when there are moderate or large numbers of trials per participant (e.g., N = 50 or N = 100). But when the independence assumption is violated, PPT provides biased findings, although the bias is quite small unless the violations are large.     

The Assessment of Limb Apraxia: An Investigation of Task Effects and Their Cause

To test the effects of variations in the structure of tasks used to assess limb apraxia, eight tasks—differing in their modes of elicitation (tactile, verbal, visual, imitation) and/or types of movement elicited (transitive, intransitive, meaningless)—were administered to 25 carefully selected subjects with idiomotor limb apraxia. When standardized scores (based on the performance of 10 nonneurologically impaired control subjects) were used to measure the differences between tasks, no clinically significant task effects were found. Additional investigation was made of two causal hypotheses regarding the processes underlying limb apractic performance. The results of factor analyses and a search for double dissociations among individual subjects were consistent with the (severity) hypothesis that differences in task performances (raw scores) reflect degrees of task difficulty; and they failed to support the (disconnection) hypothesis that posits separate and independent neural/mental processes underlying task performances.     

Development of a Career Task Self-Efficacy Scale: The Kuder Task Self-Efficacy Scale

The present study consisted of developing the Kuder Task Self-Efficacy Scale (KTSES). The KTSES is a 30-item scale measuring a person's self-efficacy for tasks corresponding to Kuder's 10 occupational interest areas (Kuder Zytowski, 1991). Responses from the KTSES were compared with responses to the Self-Esteem Inventory (SES; Rosenberg, 1965) and the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale (CDMSE; Taylor Betz, 1983) to see if career task self-efficacy was related to self-esteem and career decision-making self-efficacy. Answers to the KTSES were also compared with responses given for occupations corresponding to the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS; Kuder Zytowski, 1991) to see if occupational self-efficacy was related to career task self-efficacy. Results supported the validity and reliability of the KTSES. The utility of having a task self-efficacy scale to go with the KOIS is discussed, and ideas for future research are given.     

The Animate-Inanimate Distinction in Infancy: Developing Sensitivity to Constraints on Human Actions

Infants aged 4 and 6 months were presented with events in which a person acted so as to set another person, or an inanimate object, in motion. In one condition, the actor spoke to the person (natural) or inanimate object (unnatural); in the other condition, the actor grasped and manipulated the person (unnatural) or object (natural). Six-month-old infants looked reliably longer at the natural actions than at the unnatural actions. A follow-up experiment revealed that their preference depended on the naturalness of the human actions themselves, not on the features or motions of the person or object that was acted upon. Looking preferences at 4 months were equivocal, consistent with the thesis that sensitivity to the natural actions develops over the first 6 months of age. We discuss these findings in relation to the development of social understanding, social gaze, and visual exploration.     

The Contribution of Task Performance and Contextual Performance to Effectiveness: Investigating the Role of Situational Constraints

Task performance and contextual performance are two distinct dimensions of behaviour at work that can contribute independently to effectiveness outcomes for organisations. Contextual performance is important because it represents a type of behaviour that is largely under the motivational control of individuals. Little research has addressed how the opportunity to engage in contextual behaviours might be constrained by situational demands. This study examined the contribution of task performance and contextual performance to effectiveness in the work of air traffic controllers. As predicted, task difficulty moderated the relationship between contextual performance and effectiveness. The results demonstrate that contextual performance does contribute to effectiveness in technical domains, such as air traffic control, and highlight the importance of assessing situational factors when assessing performance and effectiveness.     

Academic Dishonesty: An In-Depth Investigation of Assessing Measurable Constructs and a Call for Consistency in Scholarship

For over 70 years, research has tackled the issue of academic misconduct in the university setting. However, a review of the literature reveals that (a) consensus on the magnitude of such behavior has not been reached, and, (b) no one with expertise in quantitative methodology has attempted to classify the behaviors that describe cheaters until Ferrell and Daniel proposed the use of the Academic Misconduct Survey (AMS). Even they, following their 1995 study, made a call for the development of understandable constructs in the measurement of cheating. Seventeen years later, the present study sought to produce such constructs. In a series of three phases of data collection, 4,100 participants completed a revised version of the AMS. A factor solution containing five factors proved to be the most interpretable. The five factors are as follows: creative padding, interactive cheating, false personal excuses, taking credit for others’ work, exam cheating. The present paper outlines the constructs proposed and discusses implications in this area for (1) scholars within the area of measurement and (2) educators with regard to student accountability and performance.     

Sensitivity to Inflectional Morphemes in the Absence of Meaning: Evidence from a Novel Task

Journal of Psycholinguistic Research - A number of studies in different languages have shown that speakers may be sensitive to the presence of inflectional morphology in the absence of verb meaning...     

The Effects of Leader Communication on a Worker's Intent to Stay: An Investigation Using Structural Equation Modeling

This study presents findings on the link between leader motivating language (ML) use and worker intent to stay. Structural equation modeling indicated that ML use significantly improves worker intent to stay—with a 10% increase in ML leading to an approximate 5% increase in worker intent to stay. Also, analysis showed that the full ML model better describes the data than any partial model based on a subset of the ML components, and this outcome helps advance researchers' understanding of the ML theory. Results indicate that proper leader language use can substantially improve the critical organizational outcome of worker retention. As such, this study identifies potential new paths for requisite leader communication research, training, and development.     

Narcissism and Sensitivity to Criticism: A Preliminary Investigation

Two studies investigated the connection between narcissism and sensitivity to criticism. In study 1, participants completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) and the Sensitivity to Criticism Scale (SCS) and were asked to construct and deliver speeches to be rated by performance judges. They were then asked whether they would like to receive evaluative feedback. Narcissism and sensitivity to criticism were mildly, but not significantly, negatively correlated and had contrasting relationships with choices regarding feedback. Highly narcissistic participants tended to seek (rather than avoid) feedback, whereas highly sensitive participants tended to reject feedback opportunities. Study 2 examined the relationship between sensitivity to criticism and both overt and covert narcissism. Those scoring high on the trait narcissism, as measured by the NPI, tended to be less sensitive to criticism, sought (rather than avoided) feedback opportunities, experienced little internalized negative emotions in response to “extreme” feedback conditions, and did not expect to ruminate over their performance. By contrast, participants scoring high on a measure of “covert narcissism” were high in sensitivity to criticism, tended to avoid feedback opportunities, experienced high levels of internalized negative emotions, and showed high levels of expected rumination. These findings suggest that the relationship between narcissism and sensitivity to criticism is highly dependent upon the definition or “form” of narcissism considered.     

Narcissism and Sensitivity to Criticism: A Preliminary Investigation

Two studies investigated the connection between narcissism and sensitivity to criticism. In study 1, participants completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) and the Sensitivity to Criticism Scale (SCS) and were asked to construct and deliver speeches to be rated by performance judges. They were then asked whether they would like to receive evaluative feedback. Narcissism and sensitivity to criticism were mildly, but not significantly, negatively correlated and had contrasting relationships with choices regarding feedback. Highly narcissistic participants tended to seek (rather than avoid) feedback, whereas highly sensitive participants tended to reject feedback opportunities. Study 2 examined the relationship between sensitivity to criticism and both overt and covert narcissism. Those scoring high on the trait narcissism, as measured by the NPI, tended to be less sensitive to criticism, sought (rather than avoided) feedback opportunities, experienced little internalized negative emotions in response to “extreme” feedback conditions, and did not expect to ruminate over their performance. By contrast, participants scoring high on a measure of “covert narcissism” were high in sensitivity to criticism, tended to avoid feedback opportunities, experienced high levels of internalized negative emotions, and showed high levels of expected rumination. These findings suggest that the relationship between narcissism and sensitivity to criticism is highly dependent upon the definition or “form” of narcissism considered.     

幼儿汉语字形和语义与图形加工速度的发展与比较

测量了127名4-7岁幼儿基线速度、汉字字形、语义和图形加工速度的年龄差异.结果发现:(1)基线速度的反应时随年龄增伽而缩短,正确率不发生变化,对不同加工速度的年龄变化具有部分中介作用.(2)幼儿的三类加工速度随年龄加快,4岁儿童汉语加工水平低于图形加工水平.儿童进入小学后汉语加工水平开始提高,达到图形加工水平.(3)学龄前儿童加工汉语刺激的速度及其变化率慢于学龄初期儿童,4岁儿童的汉语语义加工能力要好于字形加工.(4)幼儿汉语空间认知水平低于空间刺激和汉字的言语认知水平.练习是造成图形加工速度、汉字语义加工速度快于汉字字形加工速度的原因之一.     

The Taxonomy of a Japanese Stroll Garden: An Ontological Investigation Using Formal Concept Analysis

This paper introduces current acoustic theories relating to the phenomenology of sound as a framework for interrogating concepts relating to the ecologies of acoustic and landscape phenomena in a Japanese stroll garden. By applying the technique of Formal Concept Analysis, a partially ordered lattice of garden objects and attributes is visualized as a means to investigate the relationship between elements of the taxonomy.     

The Effects of a Self-sacrificing Minority on Pro-environmental Norms and Behavior: An Investigation Using a Sea Pollution Game

This research investigated how a minority member sacrificing his/her personal benefits to protect the environment might influence the attitudes and behavior of others. The experiment, using a sea pollution game, employed a 2(minority factor)×2(cost factor) factorial design. Under the high-cost condition, in which an ecological minority bears the substantial cost it was hypothesized that the rate of subjects' pro-environmental behavior would be higher in the one-minority case than in the no-minority case. In contrast, under the low-cost condition, the differences between these two cases would decrease. The results supported this assumption. In prompting pro-environmental behavior, a self-sacrification minority member is more influential than one whose behavior is not self-sacrificing. Moreover, under the one-minority condition, path analyses indicated that the subjects' cost evaluation did not affect their behavior. It was concluded that when the subjects saw an ecological minority, the inhibiting effects of cost on their pro-environmental behavior would decrease.     

The Relationship of Spirituality to Cognitive and Moral Development and Purpose in Life: An Exploratory Investigation

In this exploratory study of 152 undergraduate students, the relationships among spirituality, cognitive and moral development, and existential sense of meaning were examined. Results suggest that no relationship exists between spirituality and cognitive development, but that spirituality is positively related to both moral development and purpose in life.     

The Development of Infants' Sensitivity to Arbitrary Intermodal Relations

The development of infants' ability to detect the arbitrary relation between the color/shape of an object and the pitch of its impact sound was investigated using an infant-control habituation procedure. Ninety-six infants of 3, 5, or 7 months were habituated to films of two objects differing in color and shape, striking a surface in an erratic pattern. One object produced an impact sound of a high pitch, and the other object produced a low pitch. During test trials, infants in the experimental conditions received a change in the pairing of pitch with color/shape, whereas controls received no change. Results indicate that visual recovery to the change in pitch-color/shape relations was significantly greater than that of age-matched controls at 7 months, but not at 3 or 5 months. A prior study demonstrated that by 3 months, infants were able to discriminate the color/shape and pitch changes of these events. However, it is not until 7 months that they show evidence of detecting the arbitrary relation between these attributes.     

Orthographic learning in learning to spell: The roles of semantics and type of practice

This study investigated the relevance of type of practice and presence of semantic representation for orthographic learning in learning to spell. A total of 36 students in Grade 2 (mean age = 7 years 10 months) were exposed to 10 novel nonwords, 5 of which were paired with semantic information. Half of the participants practiced reading these new items, whereas the others spelled them. The students were then tested 1 and 7 days later on a dictation task. Results revealed a significant main effect of practice type favoring spelling practice and a main effect of the teaching condition, where taught items paired with semantic information were spelled correctly more often than words presented without semantic support. There was no effect of testing time, with learned words being retained well over the 1-week delay, nor were there any significant interactions. The findings support the contention that spelling offers an excellent milieu for orthographic learning to occur. Furthermore, semantics are proposed as a relevant factor in learning to spell, supporting the view that orthographic learning involves the integration of phonological, orthographic, and semantic representations.     

Sensitivity to shifts of a point stimulus: An instance of tactile hyperacuity

The sensitivity of the tactile sense to shifts in the position of a point stimulus was determined at four body loci: the index finger, forehead, belly, and back. Water-jet stimulation was used, a method which allows frictionless travel of a point stimulus over the skin. Three subjects were tested by means of the method of forced choice, with the task being to say whether the stimulus moved to the right or to the left. The shift threshold was defined as that shift excursion which gave rise to 75% correct responding. The basic finding was that shift thresholds were on the order of 10 to 30 times smaller than the corresponding two-point limens obtained by Weinstein (1968) for the same body loci. These unexpectedly small shift thresholds indicate an exquisite sensitivity of the cutaneous sense to rapid changes in position of a point stimulus. A physiological model is presented which accounts for the difference between localization and spatial resolution. nt]mis|This research was supported by Department of Health~ Education, and Welfare Grant 14-P-SS282/9 from the Social and Rehabilitation Services, NIH Research Grant R01-EY-00686 from the National Eye Institute, and the Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Foundation.     

An Application of Generalizability Theory to the Consistency-Specificity Problem: The Transsituational Consistency of Behavioral Persistence

We assessed the behavioral persistence of 65 elementary school children in five situations to explore further the consistency-specificity, or trait-situation, issue. We predicted that the cross-situational consistency of persistence would co-vary with gender, socioeconomic status, and intelligence. The data were analyzed within the context of generalizability theory, and some of our predictions were supported by the results. We contend that the consistency-specificity issue can be profitably studied by direct behavioral assessments within the context of generalizability theory. The implications of the findings for the consistency-specificity issue, and for personality assessment in general, are discussed.