Incongruence Between Native and Test Administration Languages: Towards Equal Opportunity in International Literacy Assessment

Previous research has primarily addressed the effects of language on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) mathematics and science assessments. More recent research has focused on the effects of language on PISA reading comprehension and literacy assessments on student populations in specific Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and non-OECD countries. Recognizing calls to highlight the impact of language on student PISA reading performance across countries, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of home languages versus test languages on PISA reading literacy across OECD and non-OECD economies, while considering other factors. The results of Ordinary Least Squares regression showed that about half of the economies demonstrated a positive and significant effect of students' language status on their reading performance. This finding is consistent with observations in the parallel analysis of PISA 2009 data, suggesting that students' performance on reading literacy assessment was higher when they were tested in their home language. Our findings highlight the importance of the role of context, the need for new approaches to test translation, and the potential similarities in language status for youth from OECD and non-OECD countries that have implications for interpreting their PISA reading literacy assessments.     

Are Learning Strategies Linked to Academic Performance Among Adolescents in Two States in India? A Tobit Regression Analysis

The results of the fourth cycle of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) revealed that an unacceptably large number of adolescent students in two states in India—Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu—have failed to acquire basic skills in reading, mathematics, and science (Walker, 2011). Drawing on data from the PISA 2009 database and employing multivariate left-censored tobit regression as a data analytic strategy, the present study, therefore, examined whether or not the learning strategies—memorization, elaboration, and control strategies—of adolescent students in Himachal Pradesh (N = 1,616; Mean age = 15.81 years) and Tamil Nadu (N = 3,210; Mean age = 15.64 years) were linked to their performance on the PISA 2009 reading, mathematics, and science assessments. Tobit regression analyses, after accounting for student demographic characteristics, revealed that the self-reported use of control strategies was significantly positively associated with reading, mathematical, and scientific literacy of adolescents in Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. While the self-reported use of elaboration strategies was not significantly associated with reading literacy among adolescents in Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, it was significantly positively associated with mathematical literacy among adolescents in Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Moreover, the self-reported use of elaboration strategies was significantly and positively linked to scientific literacy among adolescents in Himachal Pradesh alone. The self-reported use of memorization strategies was significantly negatively associated with reading, mathematical, and scientific literacy in Tamil Nadu, while it was significantly negatively associated with mathematical and scientific literacy alone in Himachal Pradesh. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

阅读投入对阅读素养影响的跨文化比较研究——以PISA 2009为例

基于PISA2009的数据,从国际比较的视角出发,使用两水平线性模型,考察阅读投入对15岁学生阅读素养成绩的影响,并分析该影响模式在中国上海、韩国、芬兰和美国之间的异同。结果发现:(1)总体上,在四种不同文化背景下,学生的阅读投入均与阅读素养表现关系密切。(2)具体到构成阅读投入的各个变量,阅读兴趣、控制策略、理解和识记元认知策略以及总结元认知策略均对阅读素养表现有正向预测作用,这在不同文化背景中表现出基本一致的模式;阅读时间量、阅读材料的多样性、网上阅读活动的多样性、校内阅读变量、记忆以及精细化加工策略对阅读素养表现的影响在不同国家/地区表现出不同的关系模式。此外,本研究探讨了从增加个性化阅读时间、增加阅读文本的多样性以及进行有效学习策略的指导三个方面培养学生的阅读投入。     

一种基于多阶认知诊断模型测评科学素养的方法

科学素养是指作为一名有反思意识的公民所具有的解决科学问题和运用科学理念的能力。为实现在认知诊断中对科学素养的测评, 本文基于PISA 2015科学素养测评框架首次提出科学素养包含的三阶潜在结构, 使用新提出的多阶认知诊断模型对PISA 2015科学测评数据进行分析, 并通过模拟研究探究新模型的心理测量学性能。结果表明：(1)新模型能够较好地分析包含三阶潜在结构的科学素养; (2)科学知识对科学素养的影响最大, 科学背景次之, 科学能力的影响最小; (3)全贝叶斯MCMC算法能够为新模型提供较精准的参数估计。     

The Reading Literacy test for Secondary Education (CompLEC)

A new test to evaluate reading literacy, the Test of Reading Literacy for Secondary Education (CompLEC) is presented. CompLEC is based on the PISA assessment framework and new definitions of reading literacy. The test, easy to apply and score, assesses the level of reading literacy of children between 11 and 14 years of age in several reading situations (i.e., public, educational, personal and occupational) and with different types of texts (i.e., continuous and non-continuous). The scale has been standardized with a sample of 1,854 students from five different Spanish regions. Empirical results show that CompLEC is a homogeneous, reliable and valid instrument.     

学校教育资源对学生数学素养预测效应的跨文化比较

采用国际学生评价项目PISA2006的数据,使用多水平线性模型方法,比较中国香港、日本、芬兰和美国四个国家（地区）的学校教育资源与学生数学素养成绩的关系。结果发现,在控制学生背景变量的情况下,学校教育资源对学生数学素养成绩的影响在四个国家（地区）之间存在一定的文化差异：学校大小、生师比对中国香港学生数学素养成绩有显著的正向预测作用;学校大小、班级大小、学校类型、有硕士研究生学历的教师比例对日本学生数学素养成绩有显著的正向预测作用,用于教学的计算机比例对日本学生数学素养成绩有显著的反向预测作用;学校教育资源对芬兰学生数学素养成绩没有显著的预测作用;学校类型对美国学生数学素养成绩具有显著的反向预测作用。     

Analyses of Model Fit and Robustness. A New Look at the PISA Scaling Model Underlying Ranking of Countries According to Reading Literacy

This paper addresses methodological issues that concern the scaling model used in the international comparison of student attainment in the Programme for International Student Attainment (PISA), specifically with reference to whether PISA’s ranking of countries is confounded by model misfit and differential item functioning (DIF). To determine this, we reanalyzed the publicly accessible data on reading skills from the 2006 PISA survey. We also examined whether the ranking of countries is robust in relation to the errors of the scaling model. This was done by studying invariance across subscales, and by comparing ranks based on the scaling model and ranks based on models where some of the flaws of PISA’s scaling model are taken into account. Our analyses provide strong evidence of misfit of the PISA scaling model and very strong evidence of DIF. These findings do not support the claims that the country rankings reported by PISA are robust.     

学生科学教学知觉对科学素养成绩影响的跨文化比较

教学是通过影响学生思维而达成对学业成绩的影响,知觉是思维的重要组成。本研究以国际学生评价项目PISA2006的数据为基础,考察美国、芬兰、日本和中国香港学生科学教学知觉对科学素养成绩的影响。研究结果发现,在控制学生背景变量的情况下,学生的科学教学知觉对科学素养成绩具有显著的预测作用;4个国家(地区)学生的教学知觉对科学成就的影响具有相似性,关注应用知觉和动手实验知觉显著地正向预测科学成就,而科学探究知觉和课堂交流知觉显著地反向预测科学成就;学生教学知觉对科学兴趣的影响存在一定的文化差异,美国学生的科学探究知觉和课堂交流知觉显著地正向预测科学兴趣,日本学生课堂交流知觉显著地正向预测科学兴趣。     

Influence of dialect use on early reading and spelling acquisition in German-speaking children in Grade 1

During literacy acquisition, children learn to match written and spoken language. Little is known about how this is achieved by children who grow up speaking a dialect. The present study examined literacy-related skills before school in 71 children (mean_age: 7.61y) with a differing degree of exposure to Swiss-German (SwissG) dialect and tested their reading and spelling skills at the end of Grade 1. No differences in Grade 1 reading and spelling were found between groups of children with different SwissG exposure. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) revealed that SwissG exposure was negatively associated with Grade 1 spelling and reading, when statistically controlling for early literacy-related-skills. At the same time, SwissG exposure was positively associated with early literacy-related skills that drive reading and spelling development. Thus, literacy acquisition in children speaking a dialect is characterised by disadvantages due to a linguistic mismatch, but also by compensatory advantages of higher metalinguistic skills.     

Comparison of four scoring methods for the reading span test

This study compared four common methods for scoring a popular working memory span task, Daneman and Carpenter’s (1980) reading span test. More continuous measures, such as the total number of words recalled or the proportion of words per set averaged across all sets, were more normally distributed, had higher reliability, and had higher correlations with criterion measures (reading comprehension and Verbal SAT) than did traditional span scores that quantified the highest set size completed or the number of words in correct sets. Furthermore, creation of arbitrary groups (e.g., high-span and low-span groups) led to poor reliability and greatly reduced predictive power. It is recommended that researchers score span tasks with continuous measures and avoid post hoc dichotomization of working memory span groups.     

Regional intelligence and suicide rate: new data for Australia and a synthesis of research

Previous research has shown for the most part positive correlations between intelligence and suicide prevalence on the national level. However, this study found proxies for regional intelligence in Australia (international average domain scores from the PISA 2000 study) to be significantly negatively correlated with the total, male, and female suicide rates of the different administrative divisions of Australia, and this finding was independent of regional wealth. A research synthesis of the current results and those from similar studies of other countries (positive correlations for Austria, Belarus, The British Isles, Denmark, and The Netherlands; inconclusive findings for France, Germany, and the USA) was conducted. This synthesis of research findings showed that positive ecological correlations of intelligence with suicide rate were more likely observed for nations with higher suicide rates and poorer general living conditions, whereas there was no relation with national IQ.     

A counterintuitive hypothesis about employment interview validity and some supporting evidence

This study found mixed support for the hypothesis that the difference in criterion-related validity between unstructured and structured employment interviews is due solely to the greater reliability of structured interviews. Using data from prior meta-analyses, this hypothesis was tested in 4 data sets by using standard psychometric procedures to remove the effects of measurement error in interview scores from correlations with rated job performance and training performance. In the 1st data set. support was found for this hypothesis. However, in a 2nd data set structured interviews had higher true score correlations with performance ratings, and in 2 other data sets unstructured interviews had higher true score correlations. We also found that averaging across 3 to 4 independent unstructured interviews provides the same level of validity for predicting job performance as a structured interview administered by a single interviewer. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.     

Are cognitive differences between countries diminishing? Evidence from TIMSS and PISA

Cognitive ability differences between countries can be large, with average IQs ranging from approximately 70 in sub-Saharan Africa to 105 in the countries of north-east Asia. A likely reason for the great magnitude of these differences is the Flynn effect, which massively raised average IQs in economically advanced countries during the 20th century. The present study tests the prediction that international IQ differences are diminishing again because substantial Flynn effects are now under way in the less developed “low-IQ countries” while intelligence is stagnating in the economically advanced “high-IQ countries.” The hypothesis is examined with two periodically administered scholastic assessment programs. TIMSS has tested 8th-grade students periodically between 1995 and 2011 in mathematics and science, and PISA has administered tests of mathematics, science and reading between 2000 and 2009. In both TIMSS and PISA, low-scoring countries tend to show a rising trend relative to higher-scoring countries. Despite the short time series of only 9 and 16 years, the results indicate that differences between high-scoring and low-scoring countries are diminishing on these scholastic achievement tests. The results support the prediction that through a combination of substantial Flynn effects in low-scoring countries and diminished (or even negative) Flynn effects in high-scoring countries, cognitive differences between countries are getting smaller on a worldwide scale.     

Relationships between cognition and literacy in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Evidence suggests that cognitive and literacy difficulties are common for children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The current systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the relationship between cognition and literacy in children with ADHD. Ten thousand and thirty-eight articles were screened against the inclusion criteria and six eligible studies were retained for final review. Where two or more studies used comparable measures of cognition and literacy, a meta-analysis of the relationship between these measures was undertaken. A narrative synthesis of all included studies was also completed. There were medium effect sizes between working memory and aspects of reading, and small effect sizes between processing speed and reading. Inhibition and attention had differential relationships with aspects of literacy with varying effect sizes. This systematic review demonstrates differential relationships between aspects of literacy and cognition in children with ADHD. Further examination of these relationships is warranted to support intervention development.     

Statistical learning is related to reading ability in children and adults

There is little empirical evidence showing a direct link between a capacity for statistical learning (SL) and proficiency with natural language. Moreover, discussion of the role of SL in language acquisition has seldom focused on literacy development. Our study addressed these issues by investigating the relationship between SL and reading ability in typically developing children and healthy adults. We tested SL using visually presented stimuli within a triplet learning paradigm and examined reading ability by administering the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-4; Wilkinson & Robertson, 2006). A total of 38 typically developing children (mean age of 9;5 years, range 6;4-12;5) and 37 healthy adults (mean age of 21 years, range 18-34) were assessed. In children, SL was significantly related to reading ability. Importantly, this relationship was independent of grade and also age. The adult data, too, revealed that SL was significantly related to reading ability. A regression analysis of the combined child and adult data revealed that SL accounted for a unique amount of variance in reading ability, after age and attention had been taken into consideration. For the first time, this study provides empirical evidence that a capacity for more effective SL is related to higher reading ability in the general population.     

Note on adolescents' time-use and scientific literacy

This study investigated the relative influence of self-reported, out-of-school experiences on 13-yr.-olds' scientific literacy, including the often studied variables of homework time and television time. Results, based on a national probability sample of 3,116 students, indicated that time spent doing homework, reading, and viewing television programs with an educational focus had significant and positive independent influences on scientific literacy net of home environment and students' background factors. Viewing television programs that emphasized entertainment negatively contributed to scientific literacy. The number of hours of television viewed was unrelated to literacy. Factors associated with the transition to adolescence, dating, and peer relations, were negatively related to scientific literacy. Findings were discussed in regard to improving students' performances in science.     

The Development of Media Sign Literacy—A Longitudinal Study With 4-Year-Old Children

In a longitudinal study, 137 children at the age of 4 years were tested for media sign literacy, intelligence, and several precursors of academically relevant skills, such as phonological awareness and preschool quantity-number competencies. The children were tested four times over two years, measuring the development of these skills every six months. The purpose of the study was to explore whether children’s level of media sign literacy helps them acquire academically relevant symbolic skills like reading and mathematical competencies. The results indicate that media sign literacy as well as intelligence predict mathematical and linguistic competencies. Longitudinal findings indicate that children with higher levels of media sign literacy also achieve higher scores in precursors of mathematical and reading and writing skills, and structural equation modeling revealed a rich interconnectedness between media sign literacy and intelligence. Media sign literacy had a direct and significant effect on mathematical competencies at measurement point 2 and indirect effects on the precursors of reading and writing skills at measurement point 4.     

Intrinsic reading motivation of Chinese preschoolers and its relationships with home literacy

The relationship between intrinsic motivation and home literacy of preschoolers was explored. One hundred and seventy-seven preschool children (3.8 to 6.6 years old) in Mainland China and one of the parents who primarily took care of each child participated in the study. Six indicators were considered as a measure of home literacy. Results showed that after controlling for parents' education level and children's age, three home literacy indicators-parental model of reading behaviour, number of books, and years of character teaching-could explain children's intrinsic reading motivation. Contrary to previous Western studies, Chinese children's freedom of book choice was not related to their intrinsic reading motivation. Results are discussed in the context of culture differences.     

Home literacy experiences and literacy acquisition among children in Guangzhou, south China

Sénéchal's research in the West with English- and French-speaking children included positive relations of the development of literacy skills with home literacy experiences. There is a need to extend this research to other countries, especially in China where few studies have been done. This study examined relations of parental reports of formal and informal home literacy variables with Chinese children's vocabulary and written language development. Consistent with previous studies in the West, informal home literacy experiences were associated with Chinese children's vocabulary knowledge, and formal literacy experiences with reading skills. These findings fit previous research which distinguishes formal and informal literacy experiences in relation to children's performance on reading and language skills, and indicates reading to children is less effective for acquisition of print-specific skills.     

阅读多策略使用类型对阅读成绩的影响——基于潜在剖面分析

本研究以18299名六年级学生为研究对象,通过潜在剖面分析和方差分析,探讨了六年级学生阅读多策略使用类型的潜在异质性及其对阅读成绩的影响,结果显示:(1)六年级学生的阅读多策略使用存在3个类别:熟练使用型(占36.35%),基本掌握型(占49.29%),有待提升型(占14.36%);(2)3类学生在2类文本(文学类和信息类)和4种阅读能力(分析与整合、获取与解释、连接与推论、感悟与评价)上的阅读成绩均为:属于熟练使用型的六年级学生最好,属于基本掌握型的六年级学生次之,属于有待提升型的六年级学生最差。研究结果表明对学生开展阅读多策略使用的指导非常重要。