Changing epistemological beliefs: The unexpected impact of a short‐term intervention

Background Previous research has shown that sophisticated epistemological beliefs exert a positive influence on students' learning strategies and learning outcomes. This gives a clear educational relevance to studies on the development of methods for promoting a change in epistemological beliefs and making them more sophisticated. Aims To investigate the potential for influencing domain‐specific epistemological beliefs through a short instructional intervention. Sample On the basis of their performance on a preliminary survey of epistemological beliefs, 58 students at a German university (87.7% females) with a mean age of 21.86 years (SD = 2.88) were selected. Half of them had more naive beliefs and the other half had more sophisticated ones. Methods Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: one whose epistemological beliefs were challenged through refutational epistemological instruction or another receiving non‐challenging informational instruction. The treatment effect was assessed by comparing pre‐ and post‐instructional scores on two instruments tapping different layers of epistemological beliefs (DEBQ and CAEB). Data were subjected to factor analyses and analyses of variance. Results According to the CAEB, the naive group receiving the refutational epistemological instruction changed towards a more sophisticated view, whereas the sophisticated students receiving the informational instruction changed towards an unintended, more naive standpoint. According to the DEBQ, all research groups except the naive refutational group revealed changes towards a more naive view. Conclusions This study indicates the possibility of changing domain‐specific epistemological beliefs through a short‐term intervention. However, it questions the stability and elaborateness of domain‐specific epistemological beliefs, particularly when domain knowledge is shallow.     

Expository Text Comprehension: Helping Primary-Grade Teachers Use Expository Texts to Full Advantage

This study investigated the effectiveness of an instructional program designed to teach expository text comprehension during guided reading. Participants included 72 second graders in six classrooms, organized into four guided reading groups in each class (n = 24). The six classes were randomly assigned to one of three groups: Text Structure, Content, and No Instruction. The Text Structure group focused on text structure awareness. The Content group focused on background knowledge and vocabulary. The No Instruction group carried out their regular instruction. Findings suggest that text structure is an effective strategy for promoting expository text comprehension and that young children benefit from well-structured texts.     

Cognitive load and the imagination effect

When presented with a procedure or concept to learn, imagining the procedure or concept may be an effective instructional technique compared to conventional studying, thus generating an imagination effect. However, it was hypothesized that the importance of learning through imagining as an instructional technique depends on modes of presentation. Experiment 1 tested adults studying or imagining contour maps as participants and was designed to verify the generality of the imagination effect. Imagination instructions were superior to study instructions on subsequent test questions. Experiment 2 further investigated the effect by comparing much younger students (Grade 4), studying or imagining temperature/time graphs presented in either a split‐attention (spatially separated diagram and text) or an integrated (spatially combined diagram and text) format. Results on a subsequent test indicated that the Grade 4 students found imagining beneficial to their learning, compared with studying the material but the effect was only obtained using an integrated rather than a split‐attention format. Experiment 3 was conducted to obtain verbal protocols from Grade 4 imagination and study groups using the same instructional materials to throw light on the cognitive mechanisms behind the imagination effect. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

LEADERS IN READING RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION

Five reading lesson instruction characteristics were examined in relation to first and second graders' end-of-year instructional reading level: (a) teacher's preferred interaction style (indicated by extent of teacher telling and coaching); (b) teacher's preferred grouping (indicated by extent of whole class and small group instruction); (c) teacher's preferred focus of reading activity (indicated by extent of focus on words/letters and comprehension); (d) degree of student active response; and (e) instruction material (indicated by extent of use of narrative text and worksheets). Sixteen first- and second-grade teachers and 166 of their students were observed during reading instruction three times across the school year. Analyses of covariance were conducted. Complex relationships heretofore not revealed appeared. Different patterns of relationships between instructional characteristics and instructional reading level emerged for higher achievers compared to lower achievers and for first compared to second grade.     

Are schemas sufficient to interpret the personalization effect? Only if long-term working memory backs up

IntroductionIn the field of education, results have shown that text personalization allows for a processing of textual information. Several researchers have explained this advantage using the concept of “schema” but have not taken into account the linguistic nature of the texts.ObjectiveIn this study, we tested the importance of texts in the personalization effect. To do so, four groups of participants were contrasted with regard to the type of material (lists vs. texts) and personalization (personalized vs. non-personalized).MethodPersonalization consisted of introducing, or not, biographical elements allowing the reader to have, or not, a very familiar material to read. Therefore, two personalized groups that read some verbal material (lists or texts) mentioning some familiar locations were compared to two non-personalized groups that read verbal material (lists or texts) featuring unfamiliar locations. For the four groups, each location was associated with two objects. After the presentation phase, participants had to recognize the objects.ResultsAs expected, the personalized group recognized the objects more rapidly than the other group. A second finding showed that when the locations were not inserted in the texts (i.e., in lists), the personalization effect disappeared.ConclusionResults suggest that an explanation just in terms of “schemas” is insufficient. We think that the long-term working memory theory (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995) allows us to complete this explanation thanks to the concept of episodic text memory.     

Fostering learning from instructional video in a second language

This study investigated the most effective way to present an instructional video that contains words in the students' second language. Korean‐speaking university students received a 16‐min video lesson on Antarctica that included English narration (video + narration group), English text subtitles (video + text group), or English narration with simultaneous text subtitles (video + narration + text group). On a comprehension test, the video + text group scored higher than each of the other two groups, in contrast to the modality effect; and the video + narration + text group outscored the video + narration group, in contrast to the redundancy effect. Each of the lessons that included text was rated as less difficult than the lesson with narration only. The narration + text group reported lower effort than each of the other groups. Results highlight boundary conditions for two principles of multimedia instructional design that apply for college students who are learning in a second language. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

HOW ELEMENTARY STUDENTS REFERRED FOR COMPENSATORY READING INSTRUCTION PERFORM ON SCHOOL‐BASED MEASURES OF WORD RECOGNITION,FLUENCY, AND COMPREHENSION

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to examine how elementary students referred for compensatory remedial reading services performed on several key reading process variables: total word recognition errors while reading brief passages, significant or meaning‐changing errors, comprehension, and reading rate. In order to maximize ecological validity, the students were assessed by the school‐based reading specialist/teacher using assessment materials normally used in diagnostic evaluations of students referred for compensatory reading instruction. Although performance across all variables was below instructional levels for students’ assigned grades, both word recognition variables and comprehension approached instructional levels. Reading rate alone was consistently and significantly below several previously identified standards of performance. We feel that poor performance in rate may be an indicator of fluency problems (including automaticity in word recognition and text phrasing). Suggestions for instruction to overcome difficulties in fluency were presented.     

TEXT COMPREHENSION RESEARCH TO CLASSROOM APPLICATION: DEVELOPING AN INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE

Abstract

Reading comprehension skills are routinely taught and they are often learned to a point of “mastery” on criterion referenced tests; but students relatively seldom apply them effectively when they read content‐area materials. In this paper we argue that the problem can best be solved not by abandoning skill‐centered teaching but by discovering ways to help students make effective use of the skills they acquire through skill‐centered instruction. Our approach is to develop procedures for glossing expository text; that is, we are using marginal and other intratext notations‐‐gloss‐‐to direct students’ attention while they read in order to help them internalize, direct, and apply specific skills and strategies. We describe the purpose and rationale for our developmental approach and show how we are attempting to bring research implications to bear on our work.     

THE EFFECTS OF NARRATIVE AND EXPOSITORY ORGANIZATIONAL INSTRUCTION ON SIXTH‐GRADE CHILDREN'S COMPREHENSION OF EXPOSITORY AND NARRATIVE PROSE

Fifty‐six sixth‐grade students were randomly assigned to four instructional groups. These groups were defined by crossing two levels of instruction, organizational and traditional, with two levels of text type, expository and narrative. After four days of instruction the members of each group were randomly assigned to the eight testing conditions which were defined by three factors, instruction (organizational, traditional), text type (narrative or expository), organization (intact, scrambled). Students read passages, answered multiple choice questions, and wrote summaries of the passage. Results indicated that the students who received the organizational instruction wrote better summaries than students who received traditional instruction.     

THE MISUSES AND APPROPRIATE USES OF NORM‐REFERENCED TESTS OF READING COMPREHENSION

This article reviews four uses for norm‐referenced tests of reading comprehension: (a) as a means of placing students at the appropriate instructional level, (b) as a means of diagnosing reading difficulties, (c) as a means of documenting instructional gain, and (d) as a means of predicting future comprehension performance. It is suggested that the first three uses listed above are actually misuses of the tests. The only appropriate use is to predict future performance.     

COMPREHENSION INSTRUCTION IN A READING CLINIC: COMPARISON OF CLINIC AND CLASSROOM PRACTICES

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine middle school students’ (grades 4 to 8) metacognitive knowledge about science reading, science text, and science reading strategies. The 52 subjects were selected from 532 students who completed a survey instrument designed to determine students’ knowledge about science reading, science text, and science reading strategies. The stratified randomly sampled students were interviewed using five structured protocols. The protocol items were based on 21 strategic characteristics of successful readers of science text and three domains of metacognitive knowledge: declarative, procedural, and conditional. Quantitative analyses reveal surface level metacognitive knowledge about 20 of 21 strategies explored and similar levels of knowledge across the three metacognitive domains. A qualitative analysis indicates that average middle school students’ metacognitive knowledge of science reading, science text, and science reading strategies is similar to that of younger and poorer readers of narrative text.     

Repeated versus wide reading: A randomized control design study examining the impact of fluency interventions on underlying reading behavior

Repeated readings (RR) has garnered much attention as an evidence based intervention designed to improve all components of reading fluency (rate, accuracy, prosody, and comprehension). Despite this attention, there is not an abundance of research comparing its effectiveness to other potential interventions. The current study presents the findings from a randomized control trial study involving the assignment of 168 second grade students to a RR, wide reading (WR), or business as usual condition. Intervention students were provided with 9–10 weeks of intervention with sessions occurring four times per week. Pre- and post-testing were conducted using Woodcock-Johnson III reading achievement measures (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001, curriculum-based measurement (CBM) probes, measures of prosody, and measures of students' eye movements when reading. Changes in fluency were also monitored using weekly CBM progress monitoring procedures. Data were collected on the amount of time students spent reading and the number of words read by students during each intervention session. Results indicate substantial gains made by students across conditions, with some measures indicating greater gains by students in the two intervention conditions. Analyses do not indicate that RR was superior to WR. In addition to expanding the RR literature, this study greatly expands research evaluating changes in reading behaviors that occur with improvements in reading fluency. Implications regarding whether schools should provide more opportunities to repeatedly practice the same text (i.e., RR) or practice a wide range of text (i.e., WR) are provided.     

The effect of task relevance instructions on memory for text with seductive details

Seductive details in text are interesting but unimportant text segments. Although seductive details can make expository text more interesting, they do not necessarily promote learning of main ideas. This study investigated whether task relevance instructions that targeted main ideas would promote memory for main ideas when students read a text with seductive details. Undergraduates (n = 102) read a text with seductive detail sentences and then did a free recall task. Before reading, participants received pre‐reading questions that either targeted main ideas or seductive details, or they read for understanding. The main finding was that students in the main idea relevance instruction condition recalled main ideas better than students in the control or seductive detail relevance instruction conditions. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed, and directions for future research are provided.     

Patterns of Silent Reading Rate and Comprehension as a Function of Developmental Status,Genre, and Text Position

This study examined how comprehension-based silent reading rate (CBSRR) is affected by grade, genre, and text position. Second and fourth graders read 2 grade-specific passages (one narrative, one informational) in 4 sections, each followed by 4 comprehension questions. Analyses of rate with a criterion level of comprehension showed higher performances on informational than narrative texts and better performances as students moved through sections of a text. Percentages of students attaining CBSRR decreased across the four sections of both genres and at both grade levels. Implications of findings are discussed and question are raised about text complexity and silent reading patterns.     

SEMANTIC INTEGRATION: A COMPARISON OF NORMAL AND DISABLED READERS

Abstract

This study examined comprehension of sets of related sentences from which inferences could be drawn. Subjects were 40 disabled and 40 normal readers (C.A. 10‐10 ‐ 11‐11) who were asked to read short paragraphs suggesting spatial relationships. After reading, they were given a recognition test containing items not previously read but which were structured in their relationship to the semantic content of the texts. Analyses of within and between group errors reveal significant differences due to sentence type and a strong tendency for both groups to “misrecognize” semantically congruent inferences. The results are discussed in light of past research on the memory capabilities of disabled readers and with respect to techniques of remediation.     

How generative drawing affects the learning process: An eye‐tracking analysis

Generative drawing is a learning strategy in which students draw illustrations while reading a text to depict the content of the lesson. In two experiments, students were asked to generate drawings as they read a scientific text or read the same text on influenza with author‐provided illustrations (Experiment 1) or to generate drawings or write verbal summaries as they read (Experiment 2). An examination of students' eye movements during learning showed that students who engaged in generative drawing displayed more rereadings of words, higher proportion of fixations on the important words, higher rate of transitions between words and workspace, and higher proportion of transitions between important words and workspace than students given a text lesson with author‐generated illustrations (Experiment 1) or students who were asked to write a summary (Experiment 2). These findings contribute new evidence to guide theories for explaining how generative drawing affects learning processes.     

STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING READINESS AND RECALL IN CONTENT AREAS: THE ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE

ABSTRACT

This article presents theoretical rationale for utilizing similar pre‐reading and post‐reading activities to enhance comprehension in content areas. Specifically, the encoding specificity principle is suggested as a means to promote both readiness and recall of text‐based information. A discussion of pertinent instructional strategies which can capitalize on the encoding specificity principle follows.     

Effects of Refutational Messages,Thought Provocation,and Decision Deadlines on Signing to Donate Organs1

Across three experiments college students were given refutational messages or other treatments encouraging signing drivers' licenses to donate bodily organs in case of accidental death. An attitudinal measure (willingness to sign) predicted observed signing behavior, but relatively weakly. A measure of behavioral expectation to sign or not to sign predicted more strongly. A discussion with family was encouraged, the impact of that discussion also predicted signing but less strongly so. In Study 1 groups given a refutational message signed at no greater rates than a group given a control message. In Study 2 a refutational message group and a group asked to think about donating for 2 min signed at higher rates than a true control group. In Study 3 groups asked to decide whether or not to sign by a certain date and time signed at a higher rate than a refutational message group as in earlier studies. These procedures are recommended for organ donation signing campaigns.     

EFFECTS OF REALISTIC AND UNREALISTIC CRITERIA FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE STUDYING BEHAVIOR OF EXPERT ADULT READERS

Thirty undergraduates read an extended text about identical twins and completed one of three question‐answering tasks for the purpose of ascertaining the effects of no criterion, a realistic criterion, or an unrealistic criterion on studying behavior. Subjects receiving the unrealistic criterion (i.e., 75 out of a possible 54 similarities) produced significantly more non‐redundant responses to the text‐based question than either the realistic criterion (i.e., 40 out of a possible 54 responses) treatment or the non‐criterion treatment group. The expected difference in performance satisfaction among the treatment groups did not emerge, though a clear link between demonstrated performance satisfaction and second effort at task was shown. There was also a significant difference in reported performance satisfaction from first to second attempts for those subjects choosing the reanswering option.