Sexual Violence in and around the Classroom

Sexual violence on campus is a major issue facing students, faculty, and administrators, and institutions of higher education are struggling to respond. This forum brings together three responses to the problem, with a focus on the religious studies classroom. The responses move from the institution to the faculty to the classroom, exploring three separate but linked spaces for responding to sexual violence. The first contribution (Graybill) critiques common institutional responses to sexual violence. The second contribution (Minister) advocates for long‐term, classroom‐based responses to sexual violence and describes a faculty/staff workshop response. The third contribution (Lawrence) emphasizes the classroom, examining the issues that arise when perpetrators of sexual assault are part of the student body. Read together, the pieces offer a comprehensive view of the complicated intersections of sexual violence, the university, and pedagogical issues in religious studies.     

Posttraumatic Growth and Sexual Violence: A Literature Review

Posttraumatic growth (PTG) is the positive psychological growth that a person might experience after enduring a traumatic event. PTG is a relatively new area of research identified by researchers because it represents a shift in thinking. Rather than focusing on the negative consequences of trauma, it explores the potential for positive outcomes associated with trauma. Although PTG is well documented across different types of traumas, it is unclear how this kind of growth stems from sexual violence, specifically. This review provides an overview of the literature concerning PTG that is associated with sexual violence. Results across the literature indicate that sexual violence is consistently associated with PTG. However, given the inconsistency in research designs, assessment, and operational definitions used to study PTG, many researchers suggest that it might be difficult to determine how and when PTG occurs. This study provides a literature review of the research on PTG in the aftermath of sexual violence. Important implications for future directions and trauma-based therapy are discussed and include the identification of relevant predictors, the importance of context, and how service providers might benefit from a better understanding of PTG.     

A Comparison of Sexual Aggression Risk Factors Between the United States and the Philippines

Sexual violence against women is a global problem, prompting the need to investigate the risk factors among males in non-Western, non-industrialized countries. Using the expanded Confluence Model, this study examined and compared risk factors of sexual aggression between male college students in the Philippines and the United States. Using path analysis and multiple group analysis, results indicated that the expanded Confluence Model was generally invariant between countries. Direct paths from hostile attitudes toward women and impersonal sex to sexual aggression were non-significant, but indirect effects from hostile attitudes toward women, alcohol consumption, and impersonal sex to sexual aggression via the frequency of misperceiving a woman’s sexual intent were observed. Additional risk analysis indicated that the number of elevated risk factors were associated with higher self-reports of sexual aggression.     

Understanding and Responding to Victims of Interpersonal Sexual Violence and Sexual Assault within Committed Relationships

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to increase therapeutic discussion surrounding intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) by increasing understanding in how victims of IPSV perceive and respond to the assault. Although IPSV has received little research attention, sexual violence within relationships occurs at an alarmingly high rate. Theories of sexual assault, such as sex-role socialization, are discussed to aid clinicians in better identifying assaultive behaviors and common physical and emotional responses of victims. Additionally, the authors provide a framework for the assessment of IPSV and suggestions on “best practices” for creating conversations that promote hope and healing.     

Civic learning and teaching as a resource for sexual justice: An undergraduate religious studies course module

Civic learning and teaching, a form of critical and democratically engaged pedagogy, is utilized in an upper‐level undergraduate sexual ethics course to leverage public problem solving around the sexual violence on a mid‐size Catholic collegiate campus. Through the course, students, faculty, staff, and community members work together to deepen understanding of the causes and consequences of sexual violence within society and the local community in order to evaluate and design programming for bystander intervention, education, and sexual violence prevention advocacy. After a discussion of the application of civic teaching and learning to sexual violence, the course module describes the learning outcomes and assignments used to assess them. See as well Donna Freitas's response to this essay, “The Risk and Reward of Teaching about Sexual Assault for the Theologian on a Catholic Campus,” published in this issue of the journal.     

Woman battering: The response of the clergy

This paper examines the response of the church and the clergy to the problem of woman battering. A critical review of the theological foundations which may or may not contribute to violence directed toward females is presented. The research examining the response of the clergy to battered women is reviewed. Clergy report being confronted with the problem of woman battering and experiencing much difficulty in handling situations of this nature. In a study conducted by the authors, traditional attitudes were reflected by some modern day clergy; several clerical responses included female-blaming statements. More progressive clergy in this and other studies recognized woman battering as unacceptable; some are even studying ways to more effectively handle woman battering situations. A series of recommendations are included.Summary of Master's Thesis, Indiana University of PA, Indiana, PA 15705.     

The Use of Metaphor to Address Gender and Sexual Orientation Stereotypes in Counseling: A Feminist Perspective

The role of metaphor in psychology is reviewed, focused on gender and sexual orientation stereotypes. Feminist therapy principles are explored in relation to addressing the presence of stereotypes within a therapeutic context. Implications for working with clients presenting with disordered eating, agoraphobia, sexual violence, and sexual identity concerns are discussed.     

Dating Violence Perpetration: The Predictive Roles of Maternally versus Paternally Perpetrated Childhood Abuse and Subsequent Dating Violence Attitudes and Behaviors

This study investigated both young men's and young women's perpetration of physical, sexual, and psychological forms of dating violence, examining predictors of violence including maternally or paternally perpetrated forms of various types of child maltreatment, as well as attitudes toward dating violence and dating violence victimization. Results of hierarchical linear regressions found that childhood experiences of maternal neglect predicted men's physical perpetration, and childhood sexual abuse predicted women's sexual perpetration and men's psychological perpetration. Further, positive attitudes toward dating violence predicted women's physical, psychological, and sexual perpetration, as well as men's sexual perpetration, and experiences of dating violence victimization were the strongest predictors of most forms of dating violence perpetration, particularly among women. Implications for future research and prevention initiatives are discussed.     

Violence against women: is psychology part of the problem or the solution? A content analysis of psychological research from 1990 through 1999

Previous critiques of traditional psychology portrayed a discipline that examines social problems from an exceptionalistic perspective and decontextualizes the subjects of its inquiries. We analysed 10 years of psychological research on domestic violence, sexual assault, and sexual harassment to determine whether this criticism applied to violence against women research. Specifically, we examined the purpose, level of analysis, sample, and context of 1396 PsychLit abstracts. We found that almost half reported an examination of causal factors. Only one quarter reported intervention studies. Most studies focused at the individual level of analysis and few included contextual factors. Investigators explored questions about domestic violence most frequently among samples of victims and perpetrators drawn from clinical settings. Sexual assault and sexual harassment researchers depended on victims and perpetrators to a lesser extent, but tended to rely upon convenience samples from college settings. Representative community samples were used in only 9% of studies. These findings support the view that psychological research on violence against women suffers from a heavy emphasis on exceptionalism at the expense of a universalistic perspective, the latter of which we contend is critical to advancing the field and reducing a major threat to women's health and wellbeing. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Interactional Perspective on Coping with Intimate Partner Violence: Counterattack,Call for Help,or Give in and Obey Him?

This research reports on an investigation of if and how help-seeking women perceived that they had coped in intimate partner violence situations. Within a cross-sectional design, a representative sample of 157 help-seeking women in Norway was interviewed. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted. Results indicated that exposure to psychological, physical, and sexual intimate partner violence, respectively, did elicit different coping strategies in one and the same woman. There were also significant differences between women who perceived they had effective coping strategies and those who did not. This research suggests that a multivariate design within an interactional perspective could inform and enhance our understanding of coping strategies in intimate partner violence situations as complex, heterogeneous, and dynamic phenomena.     

The effects of alcohol intoxication and sexual interest on men's sexual persistence and hostility in a dating simulation

Perpetrators of sexual assault are often intoxicated; however, few experimental studies evaluate alcohol's “in the moment” effects on sexual aggression. This study extends past theory and research by examining the acute effects of alcohol on men's decisions about how to respond to sexual refusals in a dating simulation. Men (N = 62) ages 21–29 were randomly assigned to consume alcohol (target breath alcohol level 0.080%) or no alcohol. Participants were encouraged to talk to a simulated woman and act as they would on an actual date. They made choices from a list which included nonsexual and sexual options. The female agent was programmed to engage in some sexual activities but refuse others. Refusals became more intense if participants persisted. Negative binomial regression analysis was used to test a path analytic model. As predicted, participants' self‐reported desire to have sex was positively associated with choosing more consensual sexual activities during the simulation (i.e., activities in which the woman willingly engaged). Consensual sexual activities were positively associated with the number of times participants persisted after the woman refused. Alcohol moderated this relationship such that it was stronger for intoxicated men than sober men. The more sexual refusals participants received, the more hostile verbal comments they made to the woman. Contrary to our predictions, this relationship was not moderated by alcohol condition. Because participants had multiple opportunities to escalate their aggression or desist, this paradigm provides new insights into the mechanisms through which intoxication enhances the likelihood of sexual aggression in dating situations.

     

Domestic violence and woman's reproductive health: a review of the literature

This paper outlines the current literature on the effect of violence on women's reproductive health. Domestic violence is considered worldwide to be a social health problem which particularly affects women. It is generally categorized in five groups as physical, sexual, verbal, economic, and emotional violence. Domestic violence against women also includes sterilization and abortion by force, forcing women to use contraceptives against their will, or withholding contraceptives from those who wish to use them, genital mutilation, killing female children, and choosing gender in the prenatal period. A woman infected with a sexually transmitted disease by her partner or husband, and having a partner or husband having sexual intercourse with another woman also falls within the sexual violence parameters. Domestic violence has significant effects on both the general and reproductive health of the women, and may cause serious complications and may end with death. The studies show that women exposed to violence have worse health conditions and benefit less from health services than others. Therefore, health care personnel have important responsibilities to define domestic violence and intervene when necessary. These personnel must also be educated in matters of domestic violence, effective policy and protocols must be put in place. And, very importantly, health personnel must be supported by their managers when they try to deal with matters relating to domestic violence.     

A “Wife’s Duty” and Social Suffering: Sexual Assault in Marital Relationships in Vietnam

ABSTRACT

Sexual assault in marital relationships tends to be somewhat neglected in Vietnam compared to other forms of domestic violence. This relative neglect does not occur because of a lack of concern for abused women among Vietnamese people. Rather, it is due to structural barriers, cultural assumptions and stigma associated with sexuality, sexual violence, domestic violence, and secrecy, or misunderstanding on the part of many abused Vietnamese women. Yet, these women confront a variety of emotional, bodily, and social assaults from their husbands. Suffering is commonly expressed by abused Vietnamese women as they narrate their experiences of the violence. Abused women express their suffering as bodily and emotional pain, shame, frustration, disorientation, and social marginalization. Contemporary marital sexual violence and domestic violence more broadly in Vietnam are linked to the state’s emergent political and economic goals, as well as gender and kinship ideologies drawn upon in support of these goals. These processes have resulted in abused women experiencing social suffering derived from intersecting Vietnamese state, cultural, and social forces. I suggest institutional practices, and non-supportive perspectives and approaches of some professionals and state employees assisting abused women, have made addressing marital sexual violence a difficult and painful process, as well as an additional source of suffering. Second, layered upon these structural and cultural barriers has been the neglect by some professionals of intersecting inequalities based on gender, class, and disability. Third, some institutions in Vietnam provide more effective and beneficial assistance to abused women, making the process of acquiring assistance complex.     

The Responses of Health Systems to Marital Sexual Violence – A Perspective from Southern India

ABSTRACT

Marital sexual violence is a serious problem in India. However, marital rape and most other forms of marital sexual violence are not criminalized in the country. This qualitative study with healthcare providers (physicians and nurses), lawyers, members of a non-profit organization that offers domestic violence support services out of a hospital, a journalist and two lawyers suggest that the majority of care providers recognize that marital sexual violence is a serious concern, and agree that health systems can play a vital role in addressing both the immediate biomedical concerns of survivors, and also overall well-being. The study reveals several systemic and internal factors that hinder responsiveness of Indian health institutions. These include, the absence of a protocol or uniform internal guidelines in most hospitals, a lack of screening programs to capture the presence of violence occurring when patients visit hospitals for other reasons, a large patient load, a lack of gender sensitivity in providers’ education, an absence of domestic violence shelters, and poor interlinkages between support services such as counseling and legal services. Notwithstanding these challenges, some exemplar physicians and nurses assist survivors of sexual violence, sometimes risking their own safety. The Indian health system can be made more responsive, provided these factors are addressed, and crucially budgets are allocated for interventions.     

Delivered as Described: A Successful Case of Cognitive Processing Therapy With an Older Woman Veteran With PTSD

Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) is a first-line, evidence-based treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Little is known, however, about the use of CPT for older adults. As the United States population continues to grow and age, an understanding of the utility of CPT for older adults is vital. We present a case study describing the assessment and cognitive treatment of a 74-year-old woman veteran with PTSD secondary to military sexual trauma. CPT was associated with decreased PTSD symptoms as measured before and after treatment. Factors contributing to the veteran’s response, as well as contextual and environmental factors, are discussed. The case demonstrates that CPT may be effective for older adults without major modification.