A depleted mind feels inefficacious: Ego‐depletion reduces self‐efficacy to exert further self‐control

Recent research has found that ego‐depletion undermines self‐control by motivating cognition that justifies conservation of mental resource. One potential cognitive mechanism is reduction of self‐efficacy. Specifically, we propose that ego‐depletion might demotivate self‐control by making people believe that they are inefficacious in exerting self‐control in subsequent tasks. Three experiments support the proposal. First, we demonstrated that (a) ego‐depletion can reduce self‐efficacy to exert further control (Experiments 1 to 3) and (b) the temporary reduction of self‐efficacy mediates the effect of depletion on self‐control performance (Experiment 2). Finally, we found that (c) these effects are only observed among participants who endorse a limited (versus non‐limited) theory of willpower and are, hence, more motivated to conserve mental resources (Experiment 3). Taken together, the present findings show that decrease in self‐efficacy to exert further self‐control is an important cognitive process that explains how ego‐depletion demotivates self‐control. This research also contributes to the recent discussion of the psychological processes underlying ego‐depletion.     

Exposure to nature counteracts aggression after depletion

Acts of self‐control are more likely to fail after previous exertion of self‐control, known as the ego depletion effect. Research has shown that depleted participants behave more aggressively than non‐depleted participants, especially after being provoked. Although exposure to nature (e.g., a walk in the park) has been predicted to replenish resources common to executive functioning and self‐control, the extent to which exposure to nature may counteract the depletion effect on aggression has yet to be determined. The present study investigated the effects of exposure to nature on aggression following depletion. Aggression was measured by the intensity of noise blasts participants delivered to an ostensible opponent in a competition reaction‐time task. As predicted, an interaction occurred between depletion and environmental manipulations for provoked aggression. Specifically, depleted participants behaved more aggressively in response to provocation than non‐depleted participants in the urban condition. However, provoked aggression did not differ between depleted and non‐depleted participants in the natural condition. Moreover, within the depletion condition, participants in the natural condition had lower levels of provoked aggression than participants in the urban condition. This study suggests that a brief period of nature exposure may restore self‐control and help depleted people regain control over aggressive urges.

     

Mindfulness as a means of reducing aggressive behavior: dispositional and situational evidence

Recent research and theory suggest that mindfulness, or enhanced attention and awareness in the present moment [Brown and Ryan, 2003], may be linked to lower levels of ego-involvement and, as a result, may have implications for lowering hostility and aggressive behavior. Accordingly, we conducted two studies to examine the potential aggression-mitigating role of mindfulness. In Study 1, we found that dispositional mindfulness correlated negatively with self-reported aggressiveness and hostile attribution bias. In Study 2, participants made mindful before receiving social rejection feedback displayed less-aggressive behavior than did rejected participants not made mindful. Discussion centers on potential mechanisms by which mindfulness operates to reduce aggressive behavior.     

Self‐control depletion impairs goal maintenance: A meta‐analysis

Initial exertion of self‐control has been suggested to impair subsequent self‐regulatory performance. The specific cognitive processes that underlie this ego depletion effect have rarely been examined. Drawing on the dual‐process theory of executive control (Engle & Kane, 2004 ; Kane & Engle, 2003 ), the current meta‐analysis revealed that initial self‐control exertion impairs participants’ capacities of maintaining the task goal but its effect on capacities of resolving response competition is in need of further investigation. Our results are more consistent with recent theoretical views that consider ego depletion as a switch cost and a result arising from reduced motivation to engage in further self‐control.     

The modality effect of ego depletion: Auditory task modality reduces ego depletion

An initial act of self‐control that impairs subsequent acts of self‐control is called ego depletion. The ego depletion phenomenon has been observed consistently. The modality effect refers to the effect of the presentation modality on the processing of stimuli. The modality effect was also robustly found in a large body of research. However, no study to date has examined the modality effects of ego depletion. This issue was addressed in the current study. In Experiment 1, after all participants completed a handgrip task, one group's participants completed a visual attention regulation task and the other group's participants completed an auditory attention regulation task, and then all participants again completed a handgrip task. The ego depletion phenomenon was observed in both the visual and the auditory attention regulation task. Moreover, participants who completed the visual task performed worse on the handgrip task than participants who completed the auditory task, which indicated that there was high ego depletion in the visual task condition. In Experiment 2, participants completed an initial task that either did or did not deplete self‐control resources, and then they completed a second visual or auditory attention control task. The results indicated that depleted participants performed better on the auditory attention control task than the visual attention control task. These findings suggest that altering task modality may reduce ego depletion.     

Action orientation overcomes the ego depletion effect

It has been consistently demonstrated that initial exertion of self‐control had negative influence on people's performance on subsequent self‐control tasks. This phenomenon is referred to as the ego depletion effect. Based on action control theory, the current research investigated whether the ego depletion effect could be moderated by individuals' action versus state orientation. Our results showed that only state‐oriented individuals exhibited ego depletion. For individuals with action orientation, however, their performance was not influenced by initial exertion of self‐control. The beneficial effect of action orientation against ego depletion in our experiment results from its facilitation for adapting to the depleting task.     

Development of social problem‐solving strategies and changes in aggressive behavior: A 7‐year follow‐up from childhood to late adolescence

The aim of this study was to predict a stability of aggressive behavior on the basis of social problem‐solving strategies. Subjects were a total of 120 children, but complete follow‐up data were available only in 47 cases. Their aggressive behaviors were peer rated, and problem‐solving strategies were assessed in childhood subjects being 10 years on average, and 7 years later. Association between a development of social strategies and changes in aggressive behavior was studied with personality‐oriented pattern analyses. The main finding was that a development of strategies predicted a stability or changes of aggressive behavior very well. Aggressive strategies, both in childhood and in adolescence, as well as a lack of constructive alternatives characterized permanently aggressive subjects. Turning from nonaggressive to aggressive behavior was also explained by aggressive problem‐solving strategies, while a positive development, i.e., turning from childhood aggressive to adolescent nonaggressive behavior, was possible only if a person had never used aggressive strategies. Agreement between behavior and strategies was higher among girls. The findings supported a claim that intervention of aggressive behavior may be possible by modifying social strategies. Aggr. Behav. 25:269–279, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Ego depletion increases risk-taking

We investigated how the availability of self-control resources affects risk-taking inclinations and behaviors. We proposed that risk-taking often occurs from suboptimal decision processes and heuristic information processing (e.g., when a smoker suppresses or neglects information about the health risks of smoking). Research revealed that depleted self-regulation resources are associated with reduced intellectual performance and reduced abilities to regulate spontaneous and automatic responses (e.g., control aggressive responses in the face of frustration). The present studies transferred these ideas to the area of risk-taking. We propose that risk-taking is increased when individuals find themselves in a state of reduced cognitive self-control resources (ego-depletion). Four studies supported these ideas. In Study 1, ego-depleted participants reported higher levels of sensation seeking than non-depleted participants. In Study 2, ego-depleted participants showed higher levels of risk-tolerance in critical road traffic situations than non-depleted participants. In Study 3, we ruled out two alternative explanations for these results: neither cognitive load nor feelings of anger mediated the effect of ego-depletion on risk-taking. Finally, Study 4 clarified the underlying psychological process: ego-depleted participants feel more cognitively exhausted than non-depleted participants and thus are more willing to take risks. Discussion focuses on the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.     

Ego depletion improves insight

Initial acts of self-control can reduce effort and performance on subsequent tasks – a phenomenon known as ego depletion. Ego depletion is thought to undermine the capacity or willingness to engage executive control, an important determinant of success for many tasks. We examined whether ego depletion improves performance on a task that favours less executive control: insight problem solving. In two experiments, participants completed an ego-depletion manipulation or a non-depleting control condition followed by an insight problem-solving task (i.e., matchstick arithmetic). Participants in the depleting condition demonstrated greater insight problem-solving accuracy than those in the non-depleting control condition. Priming theories of willpower did not impact these results. Although ego depletion is widely regarded as a “state of impairment”, attendant decreases in executive control may foster insightful thinking.     

Let There Be Variance: Individual Differences in Consecutive Self‐control in a Laboratory Setting and Daily Life

The large body of research used to support ego‐depletion effects is currently faced with conceptual and replication issues, leading to doubt over the extent or even existence of the ego‐depletion effect. By using within‐person designs in a laboratory (Study 1; 187 participants) and an ambulatory assessment study (Study 2; 125 participants), we sought to clarify this ambiguity by investigating whether prominent situational variables (such as motivation and affect) or personality traits can help elucidate when ego depletion can be observed and when not. Although only marginal ego‐depletion effects were found in both studies, these effects varied considerably between individuals, indicating that some individuals experience self‐control decrements after initial self‐control exertion and others not. However, neither motivation nor affect nor personality traits such as trait self‐control could consistently explain this variability when models were applied that controlled for variance due to targets and the depletion manipulation (Study 1) or days (Study 2) as well as for multiple testing. We discuss how the operationalization and reliability of our key measures may explain these null effects and demonstrate that alternative metrics may be required to study the consequences of the consecutive exertion of self‐control. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

自我损耗对工作场所安全的影响及缓解途径

员工安全行为是工作场所安全的重要保障,而自我控制资源损耗会对安全行为产生负面影响。研究拟借鉴自我控制资源有限模型,结合行为和生理指标,探讨工作要求和辱虐管理通过损耗个体自我控制资源对安全行为的影响,并从特质自我控制和自动化安全趋近倾向两个角度探索上述效应的缓解机制。此外,研究拟采用心率变异性作为自我损耗的生理测量。研究有助于从自我控制资源的角度理解员工不安全行为的影响因素、发生机制和缓解方法。     

利他行为的自我控制过程模型:自我损耗下的道德情绪的正向作用

本研究通过3个实验验证和探讨了利他行为的自我控制过程模型。实验1采用自我损耗的双任务范式,考察了自我损耗对利他行为水平的影响。实验2考察行动控制导向在自我损耗和利他行为之间关系的调节作用。实验3通过诱发道德情绪,探讨了道德情绪对自我控制资源损耗个体的利他行为决策的作用。研究得到了以下结论:(1)自我控制资源损耗会对利他行为产生不利影响。(2)行动控制导向对自我损耗和利他行为之间的关系起调节作用。(3)道德情绪能够缓解自我损耗对利他行为的不利影响。     

Strain‐specific aggressive behavior of male mice submitted to different husbandry procedures

Severe aggression within groups of male laboratory mice can cause serious welfare problems. Previous experiments have shown that the transfer of specific olfactory cues during cage cleaning and the provision of nesting material decrease aggression and stress in group‐housed male mice. In this study, the combined effect of these husbandry procedures was tested for their long‐term effect on aggression in two strains of male mice (BALB/c and CD‐1). We used postcleaning aggressive behavior, wound counts, and testosterone levels as indicators of aggressiveness. Physiological responses to social challenge were investigated through urinary corticosterone and adrenal tyrosine‐hydroxylase measurements. Furthermore, the aggression‐modulating effects of two enrichment items (ShepherdShack/DesRes and PVC tube) were explored. Marked differences were found between the two strains. CD‐1 mice were more aggressive, had higher testosterone levels but lower corticosterone levels, and had fewer wounds than BALB/c mice. However, in neither of the two strains was long‐term enrichment with nesting material and its transfer after cage cleaning effective in lasting reduction of intermale aggression. This may be explained by the fact that aggression levels were generally low. It seems that housing mice in small, socially stable groups or keeping social disturbances to a minimum considerably modulates aggression in group‐housed male mice. Mice of both strains housed in cages enriched with nesting material had lower urinary corticosterone levels than standard‐housed mice. We therefore conclude that the long‐term provision of nesting material, including the transfer of nesting material during cage cleaning, may enhance the welfare of laboratory mice. Aggr. Behav. 29:69–80, 2003. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Predictors of aggressive behavior

A multiple factor approach was used to test additive and multiplicative models as well as to isolate a best predictive model of physical aggression. The variables of aggressive learning history, provocation, sex of target, sex of subject, sex-role orientation, and aggressive tendencies were selected. Eighty-three males and 117 females participated in the experimental session. Multiple regression analyses indicated that multiple predictor models were able to account for significantly more variance than were single predictor models; however, multiplicative models were unable to increase predictive efficacy. A model composed of sex of target, masculinity, and aggressive tendencies was established as the best predictive model for unprovoked aggression; provocation, masculinity, and aggressive tendencies made up the best predictive model of provoked aggression. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Exploring the Interplay of Trait Self‐Control and Ego Depletion: Empirical Evidence for Ironic Effects

Trait self‐control (TSC) has been conceptualized as a general and abstract ability to exert self‐regulation across multiple domains that has mostly beneficial effects. However, its relationship to situational depletion of self‐regulatory resources has received little attention. We systematically explore the interplay of trait and situational self‐control in two studies (total N = 264). In contrast with a positive view of TSC, the results show greater ego depletion effects for high (vs. low) self‐control abilities across such diverse domains as candy consumption (Study 1), risk‐taking behaviour (Study 2) and achievement motivation (Study 2). It is proposed that these ironic effects are attributable to high‐TSC individuals' less frequent active inhibition of impulses in everyday life and their resulting lack of experience in resisting acute temptations. A third study (N> = 358) corroborated this general reasoning by showing that TSC is indeed associated with less frequent impulse inhibition in daily routines. Our data point to a downside of dispositional self‐control in ego depletion paradigms. Other explanations and potential future avenues for resolving inconsistent findings across the literature are discussed. Copyright © 2013 European Association of Personality Psychology