自我、文化与记忆：自传体记忆的跨文化研究

自传体记忆不仅是对过去自我经验的加工和提取,还反映了特定的社会和文化背景。近年来,自传体记忆跨文化研究表明,东西方被试在最早记忆年龄、记忆容量和具体性、内部语言的使用、记忆取向等方面存在差异。文章从自我概念、亲子回忆和叙事方式、社会变迁和文化多元化等角度,探讨了文化自我观对于自传体记忆的核心意义。Nelson和Fivush的社会文化发展观则从发展的角度动态考察了内外因素对自传体记忆产生文化和个体差异的机制。文章还回顾了自传体记忆跨文化研究的主要方法。最后,文章探讨了自传体记忆跨文化及相关领域的研究前景和存在的问题     

提问类型对自传体记忆概括化的影响

自传体记忆概括化程度较高是抑郁症产生与发展的重要影响因素, 探究降低自传体记忆概括化程度的方法以缓解抑郁症状、降低抑郁复发率是心理咨询与治疗中的一个重要研究课题。基于此, 本研究选取344名初中生进行实验, 实验1对比了问题状态组与正常状态组被试的自传体记忆概括化程度, 结果发现, 问题状态组被试的正性、负性自传体记忆得分均显著低于正常组, 两组在中性自传体记忆得分上差异不显著; 实验2对比了问题取向提问和解决取向提问对问题状态下人们自传体记忆概括化程度的影响, 结果发现, 解决取向提问组被试无论是在正性、负性自传体记忆得分上还是在中性自传体记忆得分上均显著高于问题取向提问组和控制组, 问题取向提问组和控制组在各类自传体记忆得分上差异均不显著; 实验3进一步考察了解决取向提问对问题状态下不同归因风格者自传体记忆概括化程度的影响, 结果发现, 内归因组被试的正性、负性自传体记忆得分均显著高于外归因组, 在中性自传体记忆得分上, 两组被试间差异不显著。结论:与抑郁症等精神障碍患者类似, 遭受一般心理困扰个体的自传体记忆概括化程度也较高; 相比问题取向提问, 解决取向提问能较好地降低一般心理困扰者的自传体记忆概括化程度; 对于一般心理困扰者而言, 解决取向提问对内归因者自传体记忆概括化程度改善效果优于外归因者。综上, 解决取向提问可以作为心理咨询师或治疗师降低个案自传体记忆概括化程度的一种有益尝试。     

创伤青少年自传体记忆具体性减少：情感调节还是执行控制受损

结合经典的自传体记忆测验(AMT)和反转-自传体记忆测验(AMT-R)探究创伤青少年自传体记忆具体性减少的原因。首先通过创伤事件终身经历问卷-学生版(LIET-S)和创伤后症状自评量表(CROPS)对630名青少年进行筛查, 然后结合访谈, 并采用儿童事件冲击量表-修订版(CRIES)测量创伤程度, 最终选取有创伤后症状的青少年63名, 分为高创伤组和低创伤组, 另无创伤经历的青少年30名作为控制组。三组被试均参加AMT和AMT-R实验。结果发现, 在AMT中, 创伤青少年表现出自传体记忆具体性减少的特点, 且创伤后症状越严重, 具体性减少越明显; 在AMT-R中, 创伤青少年提取的具体记忆数量与控制组无显著差异。结果表明, 创伤青少年自传体记忆具体性的减少是情感调节的结果。     

成年女性情景自传体记忆的现象学体验：年龄与时间的作用

目的：考察成年女性情景自传体记忆(EAM)的现象学体验是否受年龄和事件发生时间的影响。方法：95名老、中、青年女性被试详细回述童年及近一年的自传体事件各一件,并完成自传体记忆问卷。结果：所有被试在近期记忆的大多数体验得分上显著高于童年期记忆,年龄主效应及交互作用不显著。在近期记忆的情绪体验上,中、老年女性比青年女性更积极。结论：成年女性EAM的现象学体验受时间影响明显,受年龄影响不大;中、老年女性的EAM现象学体验表现出一定的积极情绪偏向。     

自传体记忆的情绪对其相关信息内隐提取的影响

本研究主要考察自传体记忆本身的情绪是否影响该记忆相关信息的内隐提取过程。取大学生15人完成实验, 实验分为两部分：记忆提取和词汇判断。首先在记忆提取阶段, 要求被试根据词对(形容词-中性名词)提取积极、消极和中性情绪色彩的自传体记忆事件。接着在词汇判断任务中, 要求被试对包含提取过记忆的中性名词的词语进行词和非词的判断, 并且记录相应的脑电波。结果发现：(1)被试按要求成功提取了积极、消极和中性三类自传体记忆事件。词汇判断任务中, 内隐提取三类自传体记忆信息的反应时和正确率均无显著差异。(2)相比于积极、中性自传体记忆信息, 消极自传体记忆信息提取的过程中的ERP波幅更大, 更偏向于正向。这表明自传体记忆信息的内隐提取受到记忆本身情绪的影响, 消极自传体记忆信息提取需要付出更多资源。     

自我概念威胁以及与重要他人的比较共同削弱自我面孔优势效应

内隐积极联想理论(implicit positive association, IPA)认为自我面孔识别以及与之伴随的自我意识激发了自我概念的积极属性, 促进了对自我面孔的识别优势, 因此通过自我概念威胁可以削弱自我面孔识别的优势效应。本研究旨在探讨自我概念威胁以及与重要他人的比较对自我面孔优势效应的共同影响。实验一为自我-朋友对比实验, 10对同性好友(20名被试)在接受完自我概念威胁启动或者非威胁性启动后对自我面孔和朋友面孔进行朝向的判断, 结果发现非威胁性启动后, 自我面孔的优势效应依然存在, 而在自我概念威胁启动后, 自我面孔优势效应消失。实验二为自我-陌生人对比实验, 另外20名被试在接受完自我概念威胁启动或者非威胁性启动后, 对自我面孔和陌生人面孔进行朝向的判断, 结果发现, 无论是自我概念威胁启动还是非威胁性启动后, 自我面孔识别优势效应都依然存在。两个实验的结果均主要体现在用左手进行反应的时候。结果表明：自我概念威胁以及与重要他人的比较共同削弱自我面孔优势效应; 而左手效应的发生似乎表明了大脑右半球对自我面孔识别的主导和调节作用。     

青海高原9岁与11岁多民族儿童记忆的比较研究

本文对青海高原的9个地区6个民族的了20名9岁与11岁被试的记忆发展,进行了比较研究。结果表明,撒拉族、回族、汉族儿童的记忆成绩之间无明显差异,但他们与蒙族、土族、藏族儿童的记忆成绩之间有明显差异。蒙族、土族与藏族儿童的记忆成绩之间也有明显差异。不同的历史文化联系,不同的地理环境、经济条件和不同的教育条件及语言因素是形成这种差异的原因,其中不同的教育条件是最直接、最重要的原因。结果还表明,各族儿童记忆的发展也具有一些共同的特点。     

压抑者对情绪和非情绪自传体记忆的提取诱发遗忘

该实验考察了压抑应对方式,高焦虑和低焦虑三组被试对不同情绪性自传体记忆的提取诱发遗忘的差异。结果表明,与情绪性自传体记忆比较,被试能回忆出更多非情绪性自传体记忆;正性,负性和非情绪性自传体记忆均能得到显著的提取诱发遗忘,但是提取练习对正性和非情绪性事件的回忆率的促进弱于负性事件。压抑者的提取诱发遗忘效应要小于另外两组,且对于负性自传体记忆,压抑者没有产生提取诱发遗忘。     

沉思和分心对负情绪和自传体记忆的影响

探讨在诱发了抑郁、焦虑、悲伤等负性情绪后,沉思和分心对正常成人的情绪主观报告、生理变化和自传体记忆的作用。64名被试被随机分为两组,用故事和电影短片分别诱发了负性和中性（控制组）两种情绪状态。然后进行随机分组,分别进行分心和沉思的反应任务。测量四组被试的情绪主观报告、生理变化以及多种形式和性质的自传体记忆。结果表明：（1）沉思和分心对这些负情绪的调节作用不显著;（2）沉思引起更多的负性记忆,正性复合指数更小,自传体记忆的具体性更弱。结论：沉思导致更多负性记忆,维持了概括性记忆,更有可能加重已经激活的负情绪     

一项关于大学生自我概念的研究

研究一使用《田纳西自我概念量表》对261名维吾尔、汉族大学生的自我概念进行测查,研究二用“20问”法对120名维吾尔、汉族大学生自我概念的特点进行研究。结果表明：(1)田氏自我概念量表可适用于少数民族地区自我概念的跨文化研究。(2)总体上,维吾尔、汉族大学生的自我概念存在显著差异。(3)维吾尔、汉族男大学生的自我概念基本上无显著差异;维吾尔、汉族女大学生的自我概念有差异。(4)汉族大学生的自我概念总体有性别差异,维吾尔族大学生的自我概念基本无性别差异。     

心理时间旅行的动力机制：自我的作用

选取120名大学生,通过两个研究考察了自我在心理时间旅行中的动力机制。研究1以核心自我评价为评估自我概念的指标,发现自尊和一般自我效能对指向未来的心理时间旅行具有一定的预测效力。研究2通过启动使不同类型的自我概念在意识中占优,发现互倚组比独立组报告出更多具体的事件,且更关注他人和关系。研究表明,自我概念能够引导个体对过去和未来事件的建构。     

Crafting the TALE: construction of a measure to assess the functions of autobiographical remembering

Theory suggests that autobiographical remembering serves several functions. This research builds on previous empirical efforts (Bluck, Alea, Habermas, & Rubin, 2005) with the aim of constructing a brief, valid measure of three functions of autobiographical memory. Participants (N=306) completed 28 theoretically derived items concerning the frequency with which they use autobiographical memory to serve a variety of functions. To examine convergent and discriminant validity, participants rated their tendency to think about and talk about the past, and measures of future time orientation, self-concept clarity, and trait personality. Confirmatory factor analysis of the function items resulted in a respecified model with 15 items in three factors. The newly developed Thinking about Life Experiences scale (TALE) shows good internal consistency as well as convergent validity for three subscales: Self-Continuity, Social-Bonding, and Directing-Behaviour. Analyses demonstrate factorial equivalence across age and gender groups. Potential use and limitations of the TALE are discussed.     

Crafting the TALE: Construction of a measure to assess the functions of autobiographical remembering

Theory suggests that autobiographical remembering serves several functions. This research builds on previous empirical efforts (Bluck, Alea, Habermas, & Rubin, 2005) with the aim of constructing a brief, valid measure of three functions of autobiographical memory. Participants (N=306) completed 28 theoretically derived items concerning the frequency with which they use autobiographical memory to serve a variety of functions. To examine convergent and discriminant validity, participants rated their tendency to think about and talk about the past, and measures of future time orientation, self-concept clarity, and trait personality. Confirmatory factor analysis of the function items resulted in a respecified model with 15 items in three factors. The newly developed Thinking about Life Experiences scale (TALE) shows good internal consistency as well as convergent validity for three subscales: Self-Continuity, Social-Bonding, and Directing-Behaviour. Analyses demonstrate factorial equivalence across age and gender groups. Potential use and limitations of the TALE are discussed.     

Overgeneral autobiographical memory in depressed adolescents with, versus without, a reported history of trauma

Autobiographical memory retrieval is fundamental to the developing self-concept in adolescence, to emotion regulation, and to social problem solving and has been shown to be compromised in adolescents diagnosed with depression (R. J. Park, I. M. Goodyer, & J. D. Teasdale, 2002). The authors of the present study assessed autobiographical memory overgenerality in a sample of depressed adolescent participants with, versus without, a reported history of trauma and never-depressed control participants by using an emotion word-cueing paradigm. The authors' analyses showed for the first time that adolescents with major depression and with no reported history of trauma exhibited an overgeneral memory bias. They also revealed that depressed adolescents who reported a history of trauma retrieved fewer overgeneral memories than did depressed adolescents who reported no history of trauma. Among depressed adolescents who reported a history of trauma, more severe posttraumatic stress symptoms were associated with less overgenerality. Possible accounts of these findings are suggested.     

Subliminal priming of autobiographical memories

The current research examined subliminal priming of autobiographical memories. In Experiment 1 the subliminal primes consisted of affect-associated words (positive vs negative) and were presented just before the participants retrieved specific experiences to cue-words. The subliminal primes produced an inhibitory effect on autobiographical memory retrieval, with significantly lower positive ratings given to the emotional content of experiences retrieved after positive primes than given to experiences retrieved after negative primes. The subliminal primes for the second experiment consisted of words that related to specific lifetime periods (early childhood vs late childhood/early adulthood). A negative priming effect resulted again, with earlier life experiences retrieved after the presentation of late childhood/early adulthood primes. We believe the negative priming effects obtained in both experiments are consistent with predictions based on the self-memory system model of autobiographical memory. The results of this research may also explain mood-incongruent recall.     

Overgeneral autobiographical memory in adolescents at risk for depression

Autobiographical memory functioning is implicated in the course and onset of depression in adults (Williams et al., 2007), and there is preliminary evidence that adolescents with a diagnosis of depression have a bias towards retrieving overgeneral autobiographical memories (Kuyken & Howell, 2006; Kuyken, Howell, & Dalgleish, 2006; Park, Goodyer, & Teasdale, 2002). In two independent studies we asked whether adolescents at risk for depression exhibit autobiographical memory deficits. In the first community study of 179 adolescents, risk was operationalised as higher scores on neuroticism. We found that neuroticism was associated with greater retrieval of categoric memories to negative cue words and that severity of depressive symptoms mediated this relationship. In the second study, groups of formerly depressed (n=15) and never depressed adolescents (n=15) were matched on age, gender, depressive symptoms and verbal fluency, and again compared on their autobiographical memory functioning. Mirroring the findings from Study 1 we found that risk, operationalised here as a history of depression in remission, was associated with greater retrieval of categoric memories to negative cue words. Taken together, these studies show that risk for depression is associated with a greater tendency to retrieve categoric memories to negative cue words and suggest that autobiographical retrieval may be implicated in onset of depression in adolescence.     

Priming autobiographical memories: How recalling the past may affect everyday forms of autobiographical remembering

This study investigated the idea that when one recalls past episodes, that the content of those memories will activate additional episodic memories with like content, and such memories will then have the potential of surfacing in subsequent acts of involuntary and voluntary recall. We tested the episodic content priming hypothesis in two experiments. In Experiment 1, priming group participants first recalled memories about specific activities or events and then they were subsequently engaged in a word-cue voluntary autobiographical memory task. The results showed that priming group participants produced more episodic memories involving the primed content on this task than control participants occupied in the same task. In Experiment 2, episodic content priming was further tested on a measure of involuntary autobiographical memory (i.e., the vigilance task). The results on this task also revealed support for the episodic content priming hypothesis, including after a delay of 24 h.     

Minorities remember more: The effect of social identity salience on group-referent memory

Research on the group-reference effect has confirmed that social identities can affect memory, but few studies have explored the role of identity salience in this effect. Two experiments were designed to fill the gap. In Experiment 1 Tibetan students at one predominantly Han Chinese university showed high ethnic identity salience and better memory for trait adjectives encoded in reference to Tibetans than in reference to Han Chinese. In Experiment 2 Tibetan students at one Tibetan-majority university demonstrated low ethnic identity salience and no differences were found between memory performance under Tibetan-referential processing and Han-referential processing conditions. In comparison, Han participants did not show high ethnic awareness or an ingroup-reference effect in either experiment, due to membership of an ethnic majority (Experiment1) and lack of inter-ethnic contact (Experiment 2). These findings suggest that high salience is a prerequisite for social identities to facilitate memory.     

5-9岁儿童自传记忆与自我概念的发展及其关系

自传记忆是关于个体生活事件的记忆,与个体的自我组织结构相互影响。为在同一文化背景下进一步探讨自传记忆与自我概念发展的关系,文章采用访谈的方式,对81名5-9岁儿童进行访谈,结果发现：（1）年龄较大儿童的自传记忆更丰富、具体,涉及更多的他人信息。（2）自我概念在一年级到三年级之间发展迅速。（3）儿童自传记忆与自我概念发展无显著的性别差异。（4）自传记忆与自我概念在多方面存在显著相关。