Contrary effects of group cohesiveness in minority influence: Intergroup categorization of the source and levels of influence

The roles of group cohesiveness and intergroup categorization of the source in minority influence were studied in a 2 (high versus low cohesiveness) × 2 (ingroup versus outgroup source) × 3 (phases) factorial design. Six subjects forming a group were confronted with a confederate defending a minority position in a perceptual task. The results indicated a manifest influence effect (slide colour), accompanied by a latent polarization (afterimage) in the high cohesrveness/outgroup source condition, and a latent unfluence effect in the low cohesiveness/ingroup source condition.     

Independence and interdependence of group judgments: Xenophobia and minority influence

A first experiment examined the effects of two methods of dividing resources between Swiss nationals and foreign residents in a study involving 118 subjects. Subjects gave judgments involving either interdependent allocation (resources allocated to the outgroup cannot be allocated to the ingroup) or independent allocation. The results indicated that the socio-cognitive functioning preferred by subjects varies as a function of their view of outsiders. Interdependence of judgments was more characteristic of the most xenophobic subjects, whereas the least xenophobic were more likely to reason in terms of independence. On the other hand, intermediate subjects (those who were clearly neither for nor against outsiders) were sensitive to these modalities of judgment: interdependence engendered an ingroup favoritism, while independence counteracted this bias. A second experiment further analysed the influence of a more or less imperative minority argument on the attitudes of 109 more xenophobic subjects. Independent as compared to interdependent judgment facilitated a latent influence by the source, especially when the source employed a more imperative rhetoric to urge a more favourable attitude to foreigners.     

Studies in social influence III: Majority versus minority influence in a group

This experimental study was aimed at investigating the mechanisms of influence involved in the two functionally opposed phenomena of innovation and conformity. We have been concerned for several years with the former of these two phenomena because of its intrinsic importance and the limited amount of research devoted to it. In the present article we have attempted not only to analyse the position more thoroughly, but also to compare the effects of innovation with those of conformity. In particular, we have endeavoured to show that behavioural style acts as a general source of influence in the two phenomena under consideration, where manifest judgments are concerned. On the other hand, the latent effects of influence may be different in the two cases of innovation and conformity. To investigate these questions, we developed an experimental design consisting of three parts. The first part was intended to study manifest influence on a quasi-physical judgment based on a cultural truism. The second part was aimed at the study of latent modifications in the perceptual-cognitive code as a result of influence. The third, in the form of a postexperimental questionnaire, was intended to provide information about various aspects, including the perception of the agent of influence by subjects. The main function of the experimental manipulations was to vary the minority or majority relationship of the agent of influence within a group, and its behavioural style, consistent or inconsistent. Our main findings indicate that behavioural consistency is the main factor behind the influence exerted by both majority and minority. But whereas, in conformity, influence is limited to modifying manifest judgments, in innovation, it changes the perceptual-cognitive code underlying such judgments.     

Leadership style and role differentiation as determinants of group effectiveness

All-male and all-female groups discussed a case history and provided a statement of their analysis of the case The relationship between leadership style, as measured by Fiedler's Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) instrument, and task effectiveness (quality of the statement) was investigated for both the top task contributor and the best-liked member of the group LPC of the top task contributor did not relate to task effectiveness. In the role-differentiated groups, LPC of the best-liked member related positively to task effectiveness in the male groups (p < .05) and negatively in the female groups (p < .01) For the male groups, questionnaire data were consistent with the interpretation that the relationship between LPC of the best-liked member and task effectiveness was mediated by the ability of the high-LPC best-liked member to reduce interpersonal tension that interfered with task effectiveness. LPC of die best-liked member of the female groups was related to intermember attraction LPC did not affect role recruitment.     

Indispensability and group identification as sources of task motivation

Traditional Instrumentality × Value (I × V) models have attributed gains in performance groups to various conditions affecting the instrumentality of group members’ effort for a variety of valued outcomes. Social identity models have challenged this interpretation, suggesting that the instrumentality of effort may be irrelevant when group identification is high. A laboratory study is reported in which both indispensability and group identification are manipulated, and participants’ effort on a physical persistence task is assessed. Contrary to the social identity predictions but consistent with I × V predictions, the indispensability of effort had a positive effect on participants’ effort. Group identification had no direct or moderating effects on effort.     

Perceiving classroom aggression: The influence of setting,intervention style and group perceptions

Background. Violence and aggression in the classroom are often cited as a major concern within the teaching community. Teachers' perceptions of the appropriateness of intervention behaviours during aggressive incidents, however, are less often examined ( Meyer, Astor, & Behre, 2002 ), nor how they compare to the perceptions of training teachers ( John, 2002 ). Aims. This paper examines differences in the perceptions of practising and training teachers after exposure to an account of a violent incident where a school teacher is assaulted. The paper also investigates the relative and combined influence of classroom condition and teacher intervention on perceptions of classroom violence. Sample(s). Participants included 48 practising teachers, and 48 students undertaking a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) also took part in the study. Methods. The study utilized a 2 × 2×2 between‐subjects factorial design, manipulating the impact of classroom condition, teacher intervention, and observer status on evaluations of the teacher, assailant and school following an incident of violence against the teacher. Results. Classroom environment, teacher intervention, and observer status influenced evaluations of the teacher and school, but not the assailant. Conclusions. Implications of these findings and the applied importance of these results are discussed in relation to school policy, teacher training, and classroom maintenance.     

Creative problem solving as a result of majority vs minority influence

A comparison of influence processes exerted by a majority versus a minority is made, both theoretically and empirically. In this study, comparing the two processes in the same experimental setting, it was hypothesized that subjects would ‘follow’ the majority more than the minority, that is, they would be more influenced to adopt the exact same position. However, it was predicted that subjects exposed to the minority would be stimulated to find new solutions to the problem, solutions that were not offered by the minority but that the subjects would not have found by themselves. Further, these solutions would tend to be correct rather than incorrect. Results support these predictions.     

Majority and minority influence in group negotiation: the moderating effects of social motivation and decision rules

In organizational groups, often a majority has aligned preferences that oppose those of a minority. Although such situations may give rise to majority coalitions that exclude the minority or to minorities blocking unfavorable agreements, structural and motivational factors may stimulate groups to engage in integrative negotiation, leading to collectively beneficial agreements. An experiment with 97 3-person groups was designed to test hypotheses about the interactions among decision rule, the majority's social motivation, and the minority's social motivation. Results showed that under unanimity rule, minority members block decisions, thus harming the group, but only when the minority has proself motivation. Under majority rule, majority members coalesce at the minority's expense, but only when the majority has a proself motivation. Implications for negotiation research and group decision making are discussed.     

Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced assessment of minority group children

A variety of problems have been experienced with psychological assessment of minority children. Traditional norm-referenced measurement has repeatedly received criticism concerning cultural unfairness or bias. Responses to such accusations primarily have been in the form of new instrumentation aimed at attaining a culture fair assessment. Little response has been evident from a conceptual standpoint addressing the issues of purpose and use of test results Although many have turned to criterion-referenced measurement as an answer to the problems of norm-referenced evaluation, cultural bias is not necessarily avoided in this framework either. Issues of who determines criteria and what those criteria include must be addressed if criterion-referenced measurement is to meet adequately the challenge of multicultural evaluation.     

Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced assessment of minority group children

A variety of problems have been experienced with psychological assessment of minority children. Traditional norm-referenced measurement has repeatedly received criticism concerning cultural unfairness or bias. Responses to such accusations primarily have been in the form of new instrumentation aimed at attaining a culture fair assessment. Little response has been evident from a conceptual standpoint addressing the issues of purpose and use of test results Although many have turned to criterion-referenced measurement as an answer to the problems of norm-referenced evaluation, cultural bias is not necessarily avoided in this framework either. Issues of who determines criteria and what those criteria include must be addressed if criterion-referenced measurement is to meet adequately the challenge of multicultural evaluation.     

Psychologization and processes of minority and majority influence

Minority influence, although possible, is relatively difficult for an active minority to achieve. One of the obstactes encountered by a minority in the diffusion of an innovation is psychologization which consists in the establishment of a link between the ideological positions defended by the source of influence and psychological characteristics which are specific to that source. The experiment presented here seeks to show that psychologization constitutes an ideological barrier only to minority influence while this mode of interpretation of the source does not reduce the influence of a majority. The results obtained seem to confirm this hypothesis, above all when subjects possess opinions relatively close to those of the influence source. When on the other hand subjects have opinions that are relatively distant from those defended by the source, the explicit induction of psychologization does not seem to affect the degree of influence. It was also found that in the absence of such induction, ‘distant’ subjects would ‘spontaneously’ psychologize a minority source, in particular attributing its arguments to psychological imbalance.     

Synchronic consistency and psychologization in minority influence

The importance of synchronic consistency as a factor facilitating minority influence had not previously been the object of a systematic study. We carried out a 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 experiment aimed at studying the consequences of a) ideological similarity or dissimilarity of two minority sources belonging to b) a single minority or two different ones, on subjects c) ideologically both close and distant from positions defended by the influence sources, d) according to the absence or presence of psychologization. In the main, our hypotheses were confirmed. As expected concerning the ‘close’ subjects, in the absence of psychologization, the similarity and dissimilarity between minority sources take over, respectively, the signification of consistency and inconsistency and, consequently, increase or decrease the influence exerted by the minority sources. Psychologization decreases the benefits of synchronic consistency. Contrariwise, the ‘distant’ subjects did not seem to follow the same ‘logic’: the condition of opinion dissimilarity in the same minority is the most influential; its influence, however, diminishes when the divergence of opinion is explained by means of a psychological dissimilarity. Data related to the image of the sources indicate that the influence process is no longer determined by perceived consistency or inconsistency, but by the objectivity attributed to minorities. Under these circumstances, intra-minority pluralism became the guaranteer of objectivity.     

Polarization and moderation of person perception judgements as a function of group interaction style

Studied the effects of group discussion on the extremity of person perception judgements with a view towards (a) evaluating the role of alternative ‘modes of interaction’ in selectively inducing polarization or moderation of judgements, and (b) further extending the generality of the group polarization phenomenon. Two traditional theories of group shift (leadership theory, value theory) were also evaluated. Both the video-taped stimuli and the subject, object and situation-relevant measuring instrument were specially developed in a pilot study (N = 90) in order to approximate real-life conditions. The person stimuli were rated by subjects (N = 72) in a traditional repeated measures design, with a control group for familiarization effects. Free exchange of opinions in group discussion was either encouraged or discouraged. A significant polarization effect with marked postdiscussion recidivism was found when spontaneous interaction was encouraged, while group consensus judgements were more moderate in the more formalized group interaction condition. Neither of the traditional theories examined were supported by the data. The results are discussed in term of their potential relevance to real-life groups specializing in person perception judgements (juries, interviewing panels), and the connection between the mode of interaction formulation and other recent theories of the group shift are examined, with some suggestions for the further elaboration of the present model.     

Potential influence structures as sources of interpersonal conflict in groups and organizations

It is argued that conflict in organizations can be interpreted, in many cases, as conflict over who is to exert influence, and that this conflict, in turn, is caused by structural incongruencies in the distribution of potential influence in groups and organizations. Potential influence is described in terms of the structural relations defined by Structural Role Theory. At the psychological level, conflict is explained as a result of incompatible expectations among people about their relative influence, their desire to protect valued roles, and to maintain a sense of freedom. The implications of the present hypothesis for specifying the range of conflict situations, the type of conflict behavior, and conflict management are explored.     

Majority influence,minority influence and conversion behavior: A replication

A recent experiment by Moscovici and Personnaz (Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 1980, 16, 270–282) showed that whereas a majority produces merely compliance, or a change in the individual's verbal responses, a minority induces conversion, or a true change in one's subjective judgments. Because of the theoretical significance of these findings and because of their inconsistency with data from other experiments, an exact replication and extension of this experiment was performed. There was no evidence of compliance in any social influence condition. Instead, and in contrast to Moscovici and Personnaz, both a majority and a minority produced “conversion” behavior. Subjects' behavior is interpreted as the expression of an improved perception, resulting from a heightened level of attention to the object of judgment under social influence conditions.