Anger and Gender Effects in Observed Supervisor-Subordinate Dyadic Interactions

This study investigates the effects of a supervisor's anger and supervisor's and subordinate's gender on evaluations made by observers of interacting supervisor-subordinate dyads. In a laboratory experiment, 370 undergraduates viewed one of eight video-tapes representing the conditions of the 2 (gender of supervisor) × 2 (gender of subordinate) × 2 (presence or absence of anger) design and then completed evaluations of the supervisor and the subordinate. A field study using 265 employees from three organizations replicated the laboratory results. In spite of constant dialogue in the interactions across all eight conditions, supervisors expressing anger were rated lower and female supervisors were rated higher by observers. Subordinates were rated higher when interacting with an angry supervisor and when interacting with a male supervisor. Main effects of supervisor's gender may reflect over-evaluation of unexpected, albeit average, performance. The joint supervisor and subordinate effects are interpreted as reflecting a dyadic rating effect in which high ratings assigned to one member of the dyad are accompanied by lower ratings assigned to the other member.     

Availability,Similarity, and Gender as Determinants of Adolescent Peer Acceptance1

Attributes of accepted classmates were investigated as a function of (a) respondent-target similarity, (b) availability of desirable peers, (c) gender of respondent and accepted peers, and (d) level of intimacy of the social contact. It was assumed that availability would play a greater role than was previously recognized, in determining attributes of accepted peers in casual as well as intimate contacts, and same-gender and opposite-gender acceptance of males and females would be affected differentially by availability and similarity. Seven hundred and fitly-five 6th, 7th. and 8th grade male and female students indicated their readiness to engage in closer or more casual contacts with each of their classmates, using the Interpersonal Relationship Assessment Technique. It was found that in more superficial relations attributes of accepted peers tended to reflect availability of desirable peers (mean level of desirable student attributes in class), but not respondent-peer similarity; whereas readiness to maintain more intimate contacts with peers was significantly associated with similarity between respondent and accepted peers, as well as availability of desirable peers. It was found further that availability and similarity play different roles in determining acceptance of same-gender or opposite-gender peers by boys and by girls. These results were replicated over four levels of intimacy and four different student attributes.     

Effects of Race, Gender, Perceived Similarity, and Contact on Mentor Relationships

This study examined the effects of similarity, both actual (race and gender) and perceived, and amount of contact between mentor and protégé on the quality of mentor relationships. Mentor relationship quality was measured by liking, satisfaction, intended retention, and degree of psychosocial and instrumental functions experienced by the protégé. The participants were 104 summer intern protégés and their volunteer staff mentors employed at a large West coast media organization. Protégés were randomly assigned to one of two types of mentor pairings—same and different race mentors. Results indicate that liking, satisfaction, and contact with mentor were higher when protégés’ perceived themselves to be more similar to their mentors. Actual race pairing was related to protégés’ perceptions of the amount of career support and to mentors’ liking of protégés.     

Marital Status and Gender Similarity in Marital Therapy

This analogue study was designed to examine the effects of therapists' marital status and therapist and participant sex on participants' perceptions of therapist and expectations for therapy. Each partner of 20 couples presenting for marital therapy at four outpatient counseling centers independently completed one of four protocols. The protocols differed only on the therapist's marital status and sex. Results revealed that neither therapist marital status nor therapist sex had an effect on participants' perceptions of therapists or therapy expectations. Female participants, however, perceived therapists as more trustworthy, attractive, and expert and had higher expectations for therapy than did male participants.     

Friendship Similarity During Early Adolescence: Gender and Racial Patterns

We studied the relationship of reciprocity, gender, and racial composition (Caucasian, African American, cross-race) of adolescent friendship dyads to similarity and proximity in 136 young adolescents. We found that adolescents selected friends who were of the same gender and race and that female dyads were more similar than male dyads on verbal achievement and several personality dimensions. Caucasian dyads were more similar than African American dyads on verbal achievement, mental alertness, and dominance. African American adolescents had more contact with their best friends outside school, whereas Caucasian adolescent friends had more in-school contact. African American students had fewer reciprocal relationships than the Caucasian students. Cross-race friendships were less reciprocal than same-race friendships. Race and gender were important in determining friendship patterns. Similarity and proximity were more important than reciprocity in understanding early adolescent friendships.     

Employee Behavioral Activation and Behavioral Inhibition Systems,Manager Ratings of Employee Job Performance,and Employee Withdrawal

Employee behavioral activation system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) sensitivities have potential to add value to understanding employee personality, job performance ratings, and withdrawal. After controlling for three Big Five personality trait dimensions (Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Extraversion), structural equations modeling results from 102 employees and their managers indicated that employee BAS sensitivity was negatively related to manager ratings of employee job performance and that employee self-defeating behavior partially accounted for the hypothesized negative relations. BAS sensitivity was also indirectly and positively related to employee turnover intentions by failure to delay gratification. BIS sensitivity was positively related to employee self-defeating behavior but was not related to manager ratings of job performance or withdrawal. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings and future research are discussed.     

Gender, Race, and Perceived Similarity Effects in Developmental Relationships: The Moderating Role of Relationship Duration

The authors examine the doctoral student-faculty advisor dyad as a developmental relationship and investigate how gender, race, and perceived similarity are related to doctoral student perceptions of mentoring received. They hypothesized that the relationship of similarity with mentoring received would be moderated by duration of the relationship. Specifically, they expected that gender and race dissimilarity would lead to less mentoring early in the relationship but that such effects would dissipate later in the relationship. Furthermore, the authors predicted that perceived similarity, conceptualized as underlying similarity of attitudes, values, and beliefs, would be more strongly related to outcomes for longer duration versus shorter duration dyads. They found that, in general, duration of the relationship moderated the effects of gender similarity and perceived similarity on mentoring received, although the pattern of means was more complex than originally hypothesized.     

Organizational Hierarchy,Employee Status,and Use of Employee Assistance Programs

This study examined the role of organizational hierarchy and staff status in the number of suggested Employee Assistance Program (EAP) referrals made by potential helpers and the relationship of these variables to personal EAP use. Results and implications are discussed.     

Factors Relating to Managerial Stereotypes: The Role of Gender of the Employee and the Manager and Management Gender Ratio

Purpose  

Several studies have shown that the traditional stereotype of a “good” manager being masculine and male still exists. The recent changes in the proportion of women and female managers in organizations could affect these two managerial stereotypes, leading to a stronger preference for feminine characteristics and female leaders. This study examines if the gender of an employee, the gender of the manager, and the management gender ratio in an organization are related to employees’ managerial stereotypes.     

组织中主管-下属关系的运作机制与效果

基于社会交换的理论视角, 以下属关系投入-主管资源回报的概念架构来展现组织中主管与下属关系互动的实质, 对主管-下属关系的运作效果与机制进行跨层次的实证研究。通过问卷法获得54个工作群体的426名下属与主管的对偶数据, 基于HLM分析的结果表明：下属在工作之余对主管的私人关系投入不仅能直接获得主管的工具性资源回报与情感性资源回报, 还能通过领导-成员交换(LMX)间接地获得主管的工具性与情感性资源回报, 而在工作群体内基于私人关系进行人力资源管理决策的特征对主管与下属之间的关系互动与关系质量也存在一定程度的影响。     

Social Comparison in Medical School: What Students Say About Gender and Similarity

The social comparison strategies of 43 (21 female, 22 male) fourth-year medical students were surveyed to determine the influence of student and target gender on comparison selections. Questions were included to see what types of comparisons (standard-setter, universalistic, particularistic, and downward) students made in five domains (diagnostic ability, relationships with patients, clinical skills, writing patient reports, and relationships with physicians). Results showed that women compared themselves to female and male targets and men tended to compare themselves to male targets. In general, standard-setter and universalistic-comparisons were most prevalent, suggesting that self-improvement and self-evaluative goals played a significant role in the comparison process. Convenience of comparison other was also identified as a significant determinant of comparison selection. Overall, these results showed that similarity is an important determinant of comparison choice, but, contrary to previous research, gender is not necessarily the primary source of this similarity.     

Supervisor-Subordinate Work Value Congruence and Subordinate Performance: A Pilot Study

The relationship of superior-subordinate work value congruence to subordinate performance was examined in a retail setting. Additionally, because of on-going interest in the role of justice or fairness in the performance appraisal process, the relationship between the supervisor's value of fairness and subordinate performance was examined. Superior-subordinate value congruence was not related to subordinate performance. The supervisor's level of the value of fairness was related to supervisor-rated dimensions of performance, but not to sales and profits. Implications for future research are presented.     

Children’s Responses to Computer‐Synthesized Speech in Educational Media: Gender Consistency and Gender Similarity Effects

This study examines children’s social responses to gender cues in synthesized speech in a computer‐based instruction setting. Eighty 5th‐grade elementary school children were randomly assigned to one of the conditions in a full‐factorial 2 (participant gender) × 2 (voice gender) × 2 (content gender) experiment. Results show that children apply gender‐based social rules to synthesized speech. More specifically, children evaluate synthesized speech more positively, trust the speech more, and learn more effectively when voice gender matches either content gender (consistency attraction) and/or their own gender (similarity attraction). Children’s computer self‐efficacy was a significant covariate for their social responses to synthesized speech. Theoretical and practical implications of the current study for the design of educational media are discussed.     

The Development of Gender Identity,Gender Roles,and Gender Relations in Gifted Students

This article describes the interaction of giftedness with gender identity, gender role, and gender relations. The authors explored ways in which many gifted educational practices are gendered, a model for the development of talent in the context of gender and gender relations, and ways of reducing gender inequities in the realization of potential for both male and female students. Issues that are unique to gifted individuals are aligned with suggestions for counseling interventions.     

Experienced and Expected Similarity to Same-Gender Peers: Moving Toward a Comprehensive Model of Gender Segregation

Gender segregation is often explained by children being interested in interacting with other children who behave similarly to themselves. Children??s beliefs about girls and boys (i.e., their gender cognitions) may also play a role in gender segregation, but this idea has received little attention. In this study, we proposed a model of gender segregation that included similarity on gender-typed behavioral qualities (e.g., rough and tumble play) and gender cognitions concerning perceived similarity to same-gender others, and we assessed whether this more comprehensive heuristic model predicted observed peer interactions in young U.S. children (n?=?74; M age = 51 m; middle-class families). A multi-method design was employed including observations of behavior and child reports of gender cognitions. Support was found for the linkages proposed in this comprehensive model for boys; partial support was found for girls. Specifically, the inclusion of gender cognitions was supported for both genders: gender cognitions about perceived similarity related to interactional partner choices for both girls and boys, and accounted for variance in observed partner choices even after behavioral similarity was included in the model. The traditional link concerning behavioral similarity on rough-and-tumble play predicted boys?? but not girls?? interactions. The findings extend knowledge about the role of social cognitions in social behavior, and are consistent with ideas proposed by gender schema theory and other constructivist theories.     

Optimising Employee Mental Health: The Relationship Between Intrinsic Need Satisfaction,Job Crafting,and Employee Well-Being

Organisations are frequently confronted with the issue of how to enhance employee mental health. Based on self-determination theory, a model is proposed that examines the relationships between job crafting, the satisfaction of the intrinsic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work, and employee well-being—defined here as both subjective well-being and psychological well-being. A sample of 253 working adults completed a battery of questionnaires including the Job Crafting Questionnaire, the Intrinsic Need Satisfaction Scale, and the Mental Health Continuum. Using structural equation modelling methods, it was determined that job crafting predicted intrinsic need satisfaction, which, in turn, predicted employee well-being. The results suggest that job crafting may be an important underpinning upon which to base an employee well-being intervention.     

Gender,Gender Roles,and Personality: Gender Differences in the Prediction of Coping and Psychological Symptoms

Path models of the effects of gender, gender roles, and personality variables (achievement and affiliation orientation, locus of control, empathy) on coping and symptoms were tested to explore the risk and protective effects of gender roles and personality on psychological symptoms, and to test whether or not gender roles or personality accounted for gender differences in coping and symptoms. In a sample of university undergraduates (35% Asian American, 59% European American or Caucasian, 6% other ethnic/racial background), masculinity predicted lower depression but higher antisocial and substance use problems, whereas femininity predicted lower antisocial and substance use problems. Personality variables did not account for the effects of gender or gender roles on coping or symptoms, but rather gender roles and personality each predicted unique variance in those variables. Significant gender differences in the relations among gender roles and personality emerged; however, there were no gender differences in the relations between coping and symptoms. Findings highlight the importance of studying gender differences in the effects of gender roles and personality on coping and symptoms, because it appears that gender roles and personality operate differently for males and females.     

Similarity, confusability, and the density hypothesis

Results from several letter- and digit-identification studies have been interpreted (Appelman & Mayzner, 1982; Krumhansl, 1982) as providing support for the hypothesis that psychological similarity is influenced by the local density of items in the stimulus space. This conclusion is questioned on the grounds that density was not directly manipulated in the studies, thus alternative explanations based on other stimulus characteristics cannot be excluded. In the present article six experiments are reported in which stimulus density was manipulated. In three experiments using similarity ratings and two using discrimination confusions, no effect of stimulus density was found. However, the identification counterpart of one of the discrimination studies did provide evidence of an effect of density on response probabilities. It is concluded that stimulus density can affect identification performance through its influence on the choice process implicit in any identification task, but is not an important determinant of psychological similarity.