Round-robin analysis of social interaction: Exact and estimated standard errors

Kenny has proposed a variance-components model for dyadic social interaction. His Social Relations model estimates variances and covariances from a round-robin of two-person interactions. The current paper presents a matrix formulation of the Social Relations model. It uses the formulation to derive exact and estimated standard errors for round-robin estimates of Social Relations parameters.We are grateful to George Gilbert for comments on an earlier draft.     

Response specific temporal expectancy: Evidence from a variable foreperiod paradigm

When a stimulus-response event is frequently paired with a specific foreperiod, response performance for this event is improved after this foreperiod. This phenomenon is referred to as specific temporal expectancy. In four experiments, we investigated whether stimulus- or response-related processing benefits from specific temporal expectancy. In a speeded choice reaction task, different features of the imperative stimuli were frequently paired with foreperiods in such a way that only in some experiments were the responses also frequently paired with foreperiods. Participants revealed evidence for specific temporal expectancy when responses were frequently paired with foreperiods, but not when only the stimuli were frequently paired with foreperiods. We concluded that specific temporal expectancy affects response-related processing.     

Restricted Maximum Likelihood Estimation for Parameters of the Social Relations Model

In many areas of research, the round-robin design is used to study interpersonal judgments and behaviors. The resulting data are analyzed with the social relations model (SRM), whereby almost all previously published studies have used ANOVA-based methods or multilevel-based methods to obtain SRM parameter estimates. In this article, the SRM is embedded into the linear mixed model framework, and it is shown how restricted maximum likelihood can be employed to estimate the SRM parameters. It is also described how the effect of covariates on the SRM-specific effects can be estimated. An example is presented to illustrate the approach. We also present the results of a simulation study in which the performance of the proposed approach is compared to the ANOVA method.     

A stochastic model for paired comparisons of social stimuli

A stochastic model for paired comparisons of multiattribute social stimuli is proposed where one objective is to find the relative importance of the attributes for a judge. The model can be conceived as a special strict binary utility model, i.e., a BTL-model, and is related to of the stimuli are linear combinations of functions of the attributes of the stimuli. The model neither assumes that the functions are fixed in advance nor that different judges have the same set of functions. The choice among such functions, however, is admitted only within a finite scope. Within the framework of exponential families, maximum likelihood estimators and tests are derived and applied to data coming from two psychological experiments.     

Models for multivariate paired comparison experiments with ties

Three models for multivariate paired comparison experiments are developed using the Farlie-Gumbel-Morgenstern approach to constructing multivariate distributions. Model 3 is a direct extension of the multivariate paired comparison model with no ties due to Davidson and Bradley.     

Remarks on the test of significance for the method of paired comparisons

A three-component model for comparative judgment which allows for individual differences in preference is proposed. An implication of the model is that errors in the observed proportions due to sampling individuals in paired comparisons experiments are correlated. By neglecting this correlation, Mosteller's test for the method of paired comparisons tends to accept falsely the goodness of fit of the Case V solution. It is shown that bounds may be set for the correlation effect which make a valid test possible in some cases and provide useful standard errors for the estimated affective values.Preparation of this paper has been supported in part by the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute for the Armed Forces. Views and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or endorsement of the Department of Defense. Comments of one of the reviewers, which substantially improved an earlier version of this paper, are gratefully acknowledged.     

Retrieval-induced forgetting: Dynamic effects between retrieval and restudy trials when practice is mixed

Results from numerous previous studies suggest that when subjects study items from different categories and then repeatedly retrieve, or restudy, some of the items from some of the categories, repeated retrieval, but not repeated study, induces forgetting of related unpracticed items. We investigated in two experiments whether such effects of pure retrieval and pure study practice generalize to mixed practice—that is, when retrieval and restudy trials are randomly interleaved within a single experimental block. Experiment 1 employed cued recall; Experiment 2 employed item recognition testing. In both experiments, pure repeated retrieval, but not pure repeated study, caused forgetting of related unpracticed items, which is consistent with the prior work. In contrast, with mixed practice, both retrieval and restudy induced forgetting. Thus, whereas retrieval caused forgetting regardless of practice mode, restudy caused forgetting with mixed practice, but not with pure practice. The finding provides first evidence for dynamic effects between retrieval and restudy trials when practice is mixed. It is consistent with the view that, with mixed practice, subjects engage in more retrieval during restudy trials, so that restudy trials may trigger similar processes as retrieval trials and, thus, induce forgetting of related, not restudied, items.     

Asymptotic judgment of cause in a relative validity paradigm

We report three experiments in which we tested asymptotic and dynamic predictions of the Rescorla-Wagner (R-W) model and the asymptotic predictions of Cheng's probabilistic contrast model (PCM) concerning judgments of causality when there are two possible causal candidates. We used a paradigm in which the presence of a causal candidate that is highly correlated with an effect influences judgments of a second, moderately correlated or uncorrelated cause. In Experiment 1, which involved a moderate outcome density, judgments of a moderately positive cause were attenuated when it was paired with either a perfect positive or perfect negative cause. This attenuation was robust over a large set of trials but was greater when the strong predictor was positive. In Experiment 2, in which there was a low overall density of outcomes, judgments of a moderately correlated positive cause were elevated when this cause was paired with a perfect negative causal candidate. This elevation was also quite robust over a large set of trials. In Experiment 3, estimates of the strength of a causal candidate that was uncorrelated with the outcome were reduced when it was paired with a perfect cause. The predictions of three theoretical models of causal judgments are considered. Both the R-W model and Cheng's PCM accounted for some but not all aspects of the data. Pearce's model of stimulus generalization accounts for a greater proportion of the data.     

Evaluating pedestrian interaction preferences with a game theoretic autonomous vehicle in virtual reality

Localisation and navigation of autonomous vehicles (AVs) in static environments are now solved problems, but how to control their interactions with other road users in mixed traffic environments, especially with pedestrians, remains an open question. Recent work has begun to apply game theory to model and control AV-pedestrian interactions as they compete for space on the road whilst trying to avoid collisions. But this game theory model has been developed only in unrealistic lab environments. To improve their realism, this study empirically examines pedestrian behaviour during road crossing in the presence of approaching autonomous vehicles in more realistic virtual reality (VR) environments. The autonomous vehicles are controlled using game theory, and this study seeks to find the best parameters for these controls to produce comfortable interactions for the pedestrians. In a first experiment, participants’ trajectories reveal a more cautious crossing behaviour in VR than in previous laboratory experiments. In two further experiments, a gradient descent approach is used to investigate participants’ preference for AV driving style. The results show that the majority of participants were not expecting the AV to stop in some scenarios, and there was no change in their crossing behaviour in two environments and with different car models suggestive of car and last-mile style vehicles. These results provide some initial estimates for game theoretic parameters needed by future AVs in their pedestrian interactions and more generally show how such parameters can be inferred from virtual reality experiments.     

Limitations on representation-mediated potentiation of flavour or odour aversions

Odour aversion learning is often potentiated in the presence of flavour stimuli. Establishment of an aversion to an odour is greater when an odour?+?flavour compound is paired with illness than when the odour alone is paired with illness. Holland () showed that under some circumstances auditory or olfactory stimuli previously paired with flavours may also potentiate odour aversion learning. The present experiments examined limitations on this representation-mediated potentiation of aversion learning. The results indicated that conditioned stimuli (CSs) that activate representations of potentiating cues are themselves immune to potentiation by other CS-activated representations, but remain susceptible to potentiation by their real stimulus associates.     

Limitations on representation-mediated potentiation of flavour or odour aversions

Odour aversion learning is often potentiated in the presence of flavour stimuli. Establishment of an aversion to an odour is greater when an odour + flavour compound is paired with illness than when the odour alone is paired with illness. Holland (1983) showed that under some circumstances auditory or olfactory stimuli previously paired with flavours may also potentiate odour aversion learning. The present experiments examined limitations on this representation-mediated potentiation of aversion learning. The results indicated that conditioned stimuli (CSs) that activate representations of potentiating cues are themselves immune to potentiation by other CS-activated representations, but remain susceptible to potentiation by their real stimulus associates.     

Formal Requirements of Markov State Models for Paired Associate Learning

Discrete state learning models that make Markov assumptions are a powerful tool for the analysis and optimization of performance in paired associate tasks. We seek here to derive bounds on the complexity needed by such models in order to account for the critical effects of lag and retention intervals on paired associate learning. More specifically, after establishing that two different Markov chains are needed (one for describing the effects of trials where a paired associate is presented and one for describing the effects of trials where the paired associate is not presented), we determine the minimum number of states required in a Markov model with two chains. It is shown formally that, under certain psychologically plausible assumptions, more than three states are required. A model with two chains and four states is presented and it is shown empirically that it can account for the lag and retention effects in paired associate learning. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.     

Temporal associative processes revealed by intrusions in paired-associate recall

Although much is known about the factors that influence the acquisition and retention of individual paired associates, the existence of temporally defined associations spanning multiple pairs has not been demonstrated. We report two experiments in which subjects studied randomly paired nouns for a subsequent cued recall test. When subjects recalled nontarget items, their intrusions tended to come from nearby pairs. This across-pair contiguity effect was graded, spanning noncontiguously studied word pairs. The existence of such long-range temporally defined associations lends further support to contextual-retrieval models of episodic association.     

Overt attention and predictiveness in human contingency learning

Two experiments used eye-tracking procedures to investigate the relationship between attention and associative learning in human participants. These experiments found greater overt attention to cues experienced as predictive of the outcomes with which they were paired, than to cues experienced as nonpredictive. Moreover, this attentional bias persisted into a second training phase when all cues were equally predictive of the outcomes with which they were paired, and it was accompanied by a related bias in the rate of learning about these cues. These findings are consistent with the attentional model of associative learning proposed by Mackintosh (1975), but not with that proposed by Pearce and Hall (1980).     

Internal models in the cerebellum

This review will focus on the possibility that the cerebellum contains an internal model or models of the motor apparatus. Inverse internal models can provide the neural command necessary to achieve some desired trajectory. First, we review the necessity of such a model and the evidence, based on the ocular following response, that inverse models are found within the cerebellar circuitry. Forward internal models predict the consequences of actions and can be used to overcome time delays associated with feedback control. Secondly, we review the evidence that the cerebellum generates predictions using such a forward model. Finally, we review a computational model that includes multiple paired forward and inverse models and show how such an arrangement can be advantageous for motor learning and control.     

Counterconditioning of an overshadowed cue attenuates overshadowing

In 3 Pavlovian conditioned lick-suppression experiments, rats received overshadowing treatment with a footshock unconditioned stimulus such that Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A overshadowed CS X. Subjects that subsequently received CS X paired with an established signal for saccharin (CS B) exhibited less overshadowing of the X-footshock association than subjects that did not receive the X-B pairings (Experiment 1). Experiment 2 replicated this effect and controlled for some additional alternative accounts of the phenomenon. In Experiment 3, this recovery from overshadowing produced by counterconditioning CS X was attenuated if CS B was massively extinguished prior to counterconditioning. These results are more compatible with models of cue competition that emphasize differences in the expression of associations than those that emphasize differences in associative acquisition.     

Drug-onset cues as signals: intraadministration associations and tolerance.

On the basis of a conditioning analysis of drug tolerance, drug-associated cues become associated with the drug effect. These cues elicit conditional compensatory responses and modulate the expression of tolerance. Although there are many findings consistent with the conditioning analysis of tolerance, there also are contrary findings. The results of these experiments suggest that some of the apparently contradictory findings result because interoceptive pharmacological cues, as well as exteroceptive environmental cues, are paired with a drug effect. That is, within each administration, early drug-onset cues may become associated with the later, larger drug effect, and these pharmacological cues may overshadow simultaneously present environmental cues. We demonstrate the contribution of such intraadministration associations to tolerance to the analgesic effect of morphine and to the expression of conditional compensatory hyperalgesia.     

Paired comparison,triple comparison,and ranking experiments as generalized linear models,and their implementation on GLIM

A wide variety of paired comparison, triple comparison, and ranking experiments may be viewed as generalized linear models. These include paired comparison models based on both the Bradley-Terry and Thurstone-Mosteller approaches, as well as extensions of these models that allow for ties, order of presentation effects, and the presence of covariates. Moreover, the triple comparison model of Pendergrass and Bradley, as well as models for complete rankings of more than three items, can also be represented as generalized linear models. All such models can be easily fit by maximum likelihood, using the widely available GLIM computer package. Additionally, GLIM enables the computation of likelihood ratio statistics for testing many hypotheses of interest. Examples are presented that cover a variety of cases, along with their implementation on GLIM.     

Fluency of retrieval at study affects judgments of learning (JOLs): An analytic or nonanalytic basis for JOLs?

The fluency of retrieval during a test of memory has been implicated as a cue for judgments of learning (JOLs), but little is known about how fluency affects JOLs. In three experiments, we investigated (1) whether the fluency of generation during study may be a cue for JOLs and (2) whether such fluency effects are mediated by an analytic or nonanalytic inference. To accomplish our goals, we used a learner-observer-judge method. While studying paired associates, learners generated some targets at study. For these items, their JOLs were negatively correlated with the time taken to generate targets. Observers watched learners generate targets and then predicted learners' memory performance. Judges also made JOLs but did not watch the learners generate targets. JOLs from all groups were negatively related to learners' latencies to generate targets, with the magnitude of the relationship equivalent for learners and observers and lower for judges. These and other findings are consistent with the conclusions that the fluency of generation at study is a cue for JOLs and that such fluency effects are partly mediated by an analytic inference about how fluency is related to memory.     

Maximum likelihood estimation for Luce's choice model

A terminology for general choice models based on the choice axiom is given. It applies to all kinds of choice experiments, such as confusion choice experiments, paired comparisons, triadic comparisons, directional rankings, scores on binary test items, and others. Maximum likelihood estimation for such general choice models is considered. Conditions for the uniqueness of maximum likelihood estimates are given, and it is shown that the estimates can be derived by iterative proportional fitting. This offers the opportunity of a general test of the choice axiom for all kinds of choice experiments using the likelihood ratio. The estimation and testing procedure is applied to data from a form recognition experiment, reported by W. A. Wagenaar (Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie, 1968, 23, 96–108).