Cultural predictors of self-esteem: a study of Chinese American female and male young adults

This study examined how specific domains of cultural orientation (language, social affiliation, and cultural pride) related to self-esteem for a sample of 174 Chinese American male and 179 Chinese American female college students. Participants completed measures of cultural orientation (General Ethnicity Questionnaire; J.L. Tsai, Y.W. Ying, & P.A. Lee, 2000) and self-esteem (M. Rosenberg, 1965). Cultural orientation significantly predicted self-esteem, above and beyond the contribution of age, gender, grade point average, and socioeconomic status. Specifically, proficiency in English and Chinese languages and pride in Chinese culture were positively correlated with self-esteem, whereas affiliation with Chinese people was negatively correlated with selfesteem. The cultural predictors of self-esteem differed for Chinese American men and women. Whereas self-esteem was mainly related to pride in Chinese culture for Chinese American women, self-esteem was mainly related to English and Chinese language proficiency for Chinese American men. Implications of these findings for understanding Asian Americans are discussed.     

Cultural and demographic correlates of self‐reported guardedness among East Asian immigrants in the US

The study examined guarded self‐disclosure or reticence to reveal personal information about oneself to others among East Asian immigrants in the United States, in terms of cultural (ethnic identity, self‐construal, and acculturation) and demographic (gender, age, number of years in the US, and English fluency) variables. Norms regarding appropriate amount, content, and type of self‐disclosure differ noticeably between Asian and American cultures. In general, Asians have been found to be more guarded in their self‐disclosure than their American counterparts. Such differences may hinder the formation of relationships between Asian immigrants and Americans. Thus, it is important for psychologists to examine culture‐specific and non‐culture‐specific correlates of guarded self‐disclosure among Asian immigrants in the United States. However, to date, there has been a dearth of studies examining this topic. This paucity of research is somewhat surprising given the large number of Asian immigrants in the United States. The participants included 170 East Asian immigrants (88 males, 82 females) who were administered a battery of psychometrically established measures. While guarded self‐disclosure did not vary by ethnic group (i.e., Chinese, Japanese, and Korean), it was associated with cultural and demographic variables. East Asian immigrants who exhibited guarded self‐disclosure were more likely to report elevated ethnic pride, interdependent self‐construal, separation, and marginalization, and were less likely to report elevated interpersonal distance, independent self‐construal, and integration. Men reported significantly higher guarded self‐disclosure than women. Overall, this study highlights the importance of assessing both culture‐specific and nonspecific factors in guarded self‐disclosure among East Asian immigrants. The findings emphasize the importance of considering more generic types of self‐disclosure in addition to disclosure of very private and/or distressing information. Awareness of the cultural correlates of guarded self‐disclosure may help counsellors target their outreach programmes for individuals of East Asian heritage.     

Implicit bicultural identity among Mexican American and Asian American college students

Contemporary research on ethnic identity, acculturation, and cultural orientation suggests that, at least under some circumstances, individuals can successfully internalize or identify with more than one culture. Previous research on multicultural identity has relied almost exclusively on self-report measures. Using the Implicit Association Test (IAT), the present research examined to what extent Mexican American and Asian American college students identified with American culture and with their culture of origin. Results indicated that Mexican American and Asian American participants strongly and equally identified with both cultures. The present research provides firm evidence for a bicultural identity through assessments of thoughts that cannot be consciously controlled. Patterns of bicultural identification obtained on implicit measures were not the product of deliberate responses to normative demands or conscious attempts to convey a particular self-image.     

Resilience from Childhood Stressors: The Role of Cultural Resilience,Ethnic Identity,and Gender Identity

This study examined the potential influence of cultural resilience, ethnic identity, and gender identity on resilience processes across diverse racial/ethnic groups of young women. A sample of 200 women who attended a large state university were studied, of whom 50 self-identified as White, 50 as African American, 50 as Asian or Asian American, and 50 as Latina. Results indicated significant racial/ethnic differences in childhood stressors experienced by the women such that African American, Asian/Asian American, and Latina women reported more overall childhood stressors and more stress associated with racism and sexism than their White counterparts. Furthermore, ethnic identity search and an androgynous gender identity contributed to greater resilience. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Ethnicity and Gender Stereotypes of Emotion

In three studies we investigated gender stereotypes of emotions among four ethnic groups in the U.S., using persons from these groups as informants about their own groups. European Americans’ reports of stereotypes were compared to those of African Americans (Study 1), Hispanic Americans (Study 2), and Asian Americans (Study 3). The examination of group differences was interpreted based on variations across ethnicities in norms concerning emotional expression and gender roles. Overall, gender stereotypes of emotion were evident among all ethnic groups studied, but European Americans’ gender stereotypes were the most gender differentiated. For example, European American stereotypes held that men express more pride than women do, but African Americans’ stereotypes of pride for men and women did not differ. Similarly, whereas among European Americans, women were stereotyped to express much more love than men do, the gender difference was smaller among Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans. These different norms may pose challenges for inter-cultural interactions, and they point to the importance of considering both gender and ethnicity simultaneously in the study of emotions.     

Understanding Transcultural Identity: Ethnic Identity Development of Asian Immigrant College Students during Their First Two Years at a Predominantly White Institution

The present study focused on the conflict of Asian immigrant students preserving their connections to the Asian ethnic culture, adapting to American cultural orientation, and redefining their ethnic identity during their first two years of college. Our findings revealed a complex interaction of six social environmental factors that contributed to the emergence of three ethnic identity patterns: bicultural identity, ethnicized identity, and transcultural identity. The implications of the study articulate the need for college educators to avoid viewing Asian immigrants as an ethnically homogenous group, and acknowledge the nuanced variations in Asian ethnic identity. Moreover, it is incumbent upon student affairs administrators to persevere in promoting a campus environment that minimizes the generational divide between Asian American and Asian immigrant students.     

Asian American multidimensional acculturation scale: development, factor analysis, reliability, and validity

This article describes the development and psychometric properties of the Asian American Multidimensional Acculturation Scale (AAMAS). The results of 3 separate studies provide strong evidence of the instrument's reliability and validity. The principles for the development of the AAMAS were orthogonality of cultural dimensions, inclusion of a pan-ethnic Asian American dimension, and ease of use across ethnic groups. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses indicate that within each cultural dimension (AAMAS-Culture of Origin, AAMAS-Asian American, and AAMAS-European American) there are 4 reliable acculturation domains of cultural identity, language, cultural knowledge, and food consumption. These features of the AAMAS allow for a more complex assessment of acculturation level of Asian Americans and its relationship to psychological functioning.     

The Roots of Patriotism Across Political Contexts

Why do some Americans feel more patriotic than others? We argue that feelings of national pride are reinforced by cues from people's political and social environments. When Americans reside in contexts that align with their values, traits, and civic orientations, they are more likely to express pride in their country. We consider both civic and ethnic pathways to patriotism. We expect that minorities and those who particularly value political equality will feel increasingly patriotic as the racial and ethnic diversity of their state climbs. For those who see politics through a partisan lens, we expect that environments defined by political competition will enhance feelings of national pride. We test our theory using data from the 2012 American National Election Studies (ANES). We find that Americans are more likely to say that they feel love for their country when they reside in political contexts congruent with their values and approach to citizenship.     

Taiwanese immigrant mothers' childcare preferences: socialization for bicultural competency

This paper explores how middle-class Taiwanese immigrant mothers in the United States defined the benefits of placing their children in predominantly White American childcare centers instead of using more culturally familiar forms of care. From in-depth interviews with seven Taiwanese immigrant mothers, it was learned that they viewed these settings positively, even though their children were not in cultural environments that mirrored their homes and ethnic communities. Mothers explained that they purposefully chose this type of setting because 1) they desired to develop their children's social competency in U.S. society; 2) they perceived U.S. childcare settings as multicultural and accepting of diverse cultures even if they were in the minority; and 3) they were confident that their children's participation in their own Taiwanese ethnic community would ensure the maintenance of their children's ethnic identity and knowledge of their parents' culture. For these reasons, they did not seek out race matching or cultural congruity between childcare centers and their homes. Instead, mothers viewed the childcare center as part of their overall socialization strategy for developing their children's bicultural competency in both their heritage culture as well as U.S. society.     

Correlates and predictors of HIV risk among inner-city African American female teenagers

OBJECTIVE DESIGN: For human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related prevention initiatives to be most effective, they should be broad-based and incorporate multiple domains of influence. This study tested how several ecodevelopmental domains influenced HIV-risk related attitudes and behaviors in a community sample of African American female teens (N = 242). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Outcome measures were number of partners, frequency of intercourse, number of pregnancies, abstinence/condom use, HIV/AIDS-related attitudes and behaviors, and HIV testing. RESULTS: Structural Equation Modeling revealed many direct paths from ecodvelopmental domains to risky sexual behaviors. The findings include having more partners was associated with parental alcohol-related problems, more drug use, and a younger age at first intercourse. More frequent intercourse was associated with less cultural pride and more drug use. More pregnancies were related to a younger age at first intercourse and parental alcohol problems. HIV testing was associated with having experienced sexual abuse, an older age at first intercourse, and stronger self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Prevention programs that focus on risk reduction could expand their focus beyond sexual behavior to include a broad-range of psychosocial domains that are associated with HIV-risk. The effectiveness of prevention programs should be monitored carefully for appropriateness in different ethnic groups.     

I am against us? Unpacking cultural differences in ingroup favoritism via dialecticism

The authors proposed a novel explanation for cultural differences in ingroup favoritism (dialecticism) and tested this hypothesis across cultures/ethnicities, domains, and levels of analysis (explicit vs. implicit, cognitive vs. affective). Dialecticism refers to the cognitive tendency to tolerate contradiction and is more frequently found among East Asian than North American cultures. In Study 1, Chinese were significantly less positive, compared to European Americans, in their explicit judgments of family members. Study 2 investigated ingroup attitudes among Chinese, Latinos, and European Americans. Only Chinese participants showed significant in-group derogation, relative to the other groups, and dialecticism (Dialectical Self Scale) was associated with participants' in group attitudes. Study 3 manipulated dialectical versus linear lay beliefs; participants primed with dialecticism showed more negative, explicit ingroup attitudes. Although ingroup disfavoring tendencies were more prevalent among Chinese across studies, they may be a reflection of one's culturally based lay beliefs rather than deep-rooted negative feelings toward one's ingroup.     

What does "being American" mean? A comparison of Asian American and European American young adults

Two studies found that the meaning of "being American" differs for Asian Americans and European Americans. In Study 1, Hmong and European American undergraduates described what "being American" meant to them. In Study 2, Chinese American and European American undergraduates described what "American culture" meant to them. Responses were coded for references to cultural exposure, customs/traditional behavior, ethnic diversity, political ideology, and patriotism. Across both studies, Asian Americans referred to American customs and traditional behavior more than European Americans. European Americans referred to patriotism more than Hmong (in Study 1) and to ethnic diversity more than Chinese Americans (in Study 2). The authors suggest that these differences reflect the distinct statuses, concerns, and experiences of Asian Americans and European Americans.     

ACCULTURATION AND EATING DISORDERS IN A MEXICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY SAMPLE

Our purpose was to investigate acculturation and eating disorders by examining the role of ethnic identity and by utilizing a bidimensional perspective toward two cultures. We predicted that orientation toward European American culture and lower ethnic identity would be positively associated with eating disorders. Participants were 188 Mexican American women recruited from the community (79 with eating disorders and 109 control women). The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR and Eating Disorder Examination were used to establish diagnoses. The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans–II and the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure assessed Anglo orientation, Mexican orientation, and ethnic identity. Orientation toward Anglo American culture was significantly associated with eating disorders, whereas orientation toward Mexican culture and strength of ethnic identity were not associated with eating disorder status. Findings point to the role of Anglo cultural orientation in the development of eating disorders and underscore the need for future research to utilize bidimensional models.     

The nonverbal expression of pride: evidence for cross-cultural recognition

The present research tests whether recognition for the nonverbal expression of pride generalizes across cultures. Study 1 provided the first evidence for cross-cultural recognition of pride, demonstrating that the expression generalizes across Italy and the United States. Study 2 found that the pride expression generalizes beyond Western cultures; individuals from a preliterate, highly isolated tribe in Burkina Faso, West Africa, reliably recognized pride, regardless of whether it was displayed by African or American targets. These Burkinabe participants were unlikely to have learned the pride expression through cross-cultural transmission, so their recognition suggests that pride may be a human universal. Studies 3 and 4 used drawn figures to systematically manipulate the ethnicity and gender of targets showing the expression, and demonstrated that pride recognition generalizes across male and female targets of African, Asian, and Caucasian descent. Discussion focuses on the implications of the findings for the universality of the pride expression.     

Essentializing race: implications for bicultural individuals' cognition and physiological reactivity

It is a widely held belief that racial groups have underlying essences. We hypothesized that bicultural individuals who hold this essentialist belief about race are oriented to perceive rigid interracial boundaries and experience difficulty passing between their ethnic culture and the host culture. As predicted, we found that the more strongly Chinese American participants endorsed an essentialist belief about race, the less effective they were in switching rapidly between Chinese and American cultural frames in a reaction time task (Study 1), and the greater emotional reactivity they exhibited (reflected in heightened skin conductance) while they talked about their Chinese and American cultural experiences (Study 2). Taken together, these findings suggest that essentialist beliefs about race set up a mind-set that influences how bicultural individuals navigate between their ethnic and host cultures.     

Social distance and trait attribution among four Southeast Asian ethnic groups in the United States

This study explored social distance and trait attribution and the relationship between the two variables in persons of four Southeast Asian ethnic groups. 100 Cambodians, 102 Hmong, 102 Laotians, and 101 Vietnamese in the United States were administered a modified Bogardus Social Distance Scale with respect to seven different ethnic groups (the other three Southeast Asian groups, African American, Hispanic, and White), and rated these other groups on 10 traits: friendly and likable, in good health, unattractive, law abiding, hardworking, loyal, peaceful, unfair and dishonest, unintelligent, and have good morals. Cambodians expressed willingness to have the closest social distance with Whites and Laotians and their trait attributions were more favorable for these two groups. Theoretical and practical implications were suggested.     

The Effects of Contact with Asians and Asian Americans on White American College Students: Attitudes, Awareness of Racial Discrimination, and Psychological Adjustment

On the basis of acculturation theory, explicating mutual influences between different cultural or ethnic groups coming into contact, this study focused "on the other side of acculturation" theory by examining the effects of intercultural contact with Asians and Asian Americans on the psychosocial experiences of White American college students. Participants (N = 315), undergraduates attending a public university located within the state of Massachusetts, completed a survey that assessed demographic and personal characteristics, acculturation (extent of intercultural contact with Asian people and Asian cultures), attitudes towards Asians and Asian Americans, awareness of institutional discrimination and blatant racial issues, and psychological distress. Results indicated that White American students' intercultural contact with Asians and Asian Americans contributed significant variance to the prediction of their attitudes towards this ethnic group and awareness of discrimination and racial issues, but not to psychological distress. This study provides implications for understanding mutual acculturative influences between different ethnic groups in the United States.     

An Analysis of Domestic Violence in Asian American Communities:

This article presents a preliminary analysis of domestic violence in Asian American communities, and reports results from a focus group study on domestic violence in Southeast Asians (Laotians, Khmer, Vietnamese, and Chinese). It examines the influence of traditional Asian values, the assimilation process into American cultures, and the impact of sexism and racism on the oppression of Asian women. It is suggested that traditional Asian values of close family ties, harmony, and order may not discourage physical and verbal abuse in the privacy of one's home; these values may only support the minimization and hiding of such problems. The role of the cultural values of fatalism, perseverance, and self-restraint reduce the incentive of Asian American women to change their oppressive situations. The results from the focus group study have implications for clinical and community intervention.     

A latent profile analysis of Asian American men's and women's adherence to cultural values

The goal of this study was to identify diverse profiles of Asian American women's and men's adherence to values that are salient in Asian cultures (i.e., conformity to norms, family recognition through achievement, emotional self-control, collectivism, and humility). To this end, the authors conducted a latent profile analysis using the 5 subscales of the Asian American Values Scale-Multidimensional in a sample of 214 Asian Americans. The analysis uncovered a four-cluster solution. In general, Clusters 1 and 2 were characterized by relatively low and moderate levels of adherence to the 5 dimensions of cultural values, respectively. Cluster 3 was characterized by the highest level of adherence to the cultural value of family recognition through achievement, whereas Cluster 4 was typified by the highest levels of adherence to collectivism, emotional self-control, and humility. Clusters 3 and 4 were associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms than Cluster 1. Furthermore, Asian American women and Asian American men had lower odds of being in Cluster 4 and Cluster 3, respectively. These findings attest to the importance of identifying specific patterns of adherence to cultural values when examining the relationship between Asian Americans' cultural orientation and mental health status.     

Influence of Culture on Ethical Decision Making in Psychology

This study focused on the influence of American and Chinese cultures on consequentialism orientation in decision-making within the broader context of psychologists’ academic roles and responsibilities. In addition, this study hypothesized that educational level would affect culturally influenced ethical decision making in both cultures. Based on the American Psychological Association Ethics Code, 20 ethical scenarios in 5 domains in psychology were created and used to examine the influence of culturally ethical beliefs on psychologists’ decision making among 181 participants. The results indicated that significant cultural differences in consequentialism orientation differentiated Chinese and American participants and influenced their resolution of ethical issues.