Life events, fitness, hardiness, and health: a simultaneous analysis of proposed stress-resistance effects

The effects of exercise participation, self-perceived fitness level, and dispositional hardiness for promoting stress resistance were examined in a sample of 373 college students. Self-report measures of stressful life experience and recent physical illness were positively correlated, and fitness and hardiness were negatively correlated with illness as expected. Multiple regression analyses indicated that neither fitness nor hardiness provided a stress-moderator effect because neither was found to significantly interact with stress in the prediction of illness scores. Structural equation analyses suggested that hardiness may affect health indirectly by first influencing either the occurrence or subjective interpretation of stressful life events. No direct effect on health was found for exercise participation, although exercise may reduce illness indirectly by improving fitness. Implications for the multivariate modeling of proposed stress-resistance-enhancing effects are discussed.     

Health complaints, stress, and distress: exploring the central role of negative affectivity

Most current models in health psychology assume that stress adversely affects physical health. We re-examined this assumption by reviewing extensive data from the literature and from six samples of our own, in which we collected measures of personality, health and fitness, stress, and current emotional functioning. Results indicate that self-report health measures reflect a pervasive mood disposition of negative affectivity (NA); self-report stress scales also contain a substantial NA component. However, although NA is correlated with health compliant scales, it is not strongly or consistently related to actual, long-term health status, and thus will act as a general nuisance factor in health research. Because self-report measures of stress and health both contain a significant NA component, correlations between such measures likely overestimate the true association between stress and health. Results demonstrate the importance of including different types of health measures in health psychology research.     

Physical health correlates of overprediction of physical discomfort during exercise

This study sought to determine if overprediction of physical discomfort prior to and following exercise was related to a number of self-report and objective measures of physical health status in a general population sample. Cross-sectional findings indicated a significant and specific relation between patterns of discomfort overprediction (vs under- or accurate prediction) and negative self-reported health status and attitudes to exercise, lower levels of physical activity, as well as poorer scores for resting heart rate, cardiorespiratory fitness and body mass index (but not waist:hip ratio). Females were more likely to overpredict discomfort, were less active and had poorer physical health than males. The potential usefulness of the prediction match-mismatch paradigm for studying exercise-related appraisal processes as proximal determinants of physical activity are discussed. Information obtained from such studies could prove useful in public health education campaigns aimed at increasing levels of physical activity in the general population, particularly among the less active.     

Use of self-reports of physical fitness as substitutes for performance-based measures of physical fitness in older adults

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the association between self-reported physical fitness and performance-based measures of physical fitness in older adults. The specific components of physical fitness evaluated included aerobic endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility. Adults (25 men and 47 women) ranging in age from 56 to 92 years (M age=75 yr.) were recruited from the local community. Generally, the associations between self-reported and performance-based measures of physical fitness were low to moderate (r = 30-.01). Based on these findings, self-reports of physical fitness should not be used as substitutes for performance-based measures of physical fitness in older adults. Furthermore, present findings suggest that older adults, when asked to rate subcomponents of physical fitness, may not do so but rather evaluate a more general concept of physical fitness with aerobic endurance as the dominant factor.     

Physical Fitness as a moderator of cognitive work capacity and fatigue onset under sustained combat-like operations

A study was devised to investigate the role of physical fitness in moderating both cognitive work capacity and fatigue onset under sustained combat operations. Sixteen male ROTC cadets were followed through a 2.5-day, Pre Ranger Evaluation exercise. Prior to the start of the exercise, the cadets’ overall level of physical fitness was assessed by using five fitness indices (Harvard Step Test, chin-ups, push-ups, sit-ups, and two-mile run). Cognitive performance and subjective measures of fatigue state were assessed at regular intervals before, during, and 1 day after the exercise. The results suggest that fitness may attenuate decrements in cognitive work capacity for certain tasks requiring prolonged mental effort, particularly as the cumulative effects of sleep loss and other stressors begin to mount. Similarly, the results suggest that as overall stress levels increase, fitness may have a beneficial effect in moderating fatigue rate. Fitness did not significantly enhance the recovery process with respect to cognitive work capacity, and actually appeared to hinder recovery from fatigue.     

Physical fitness and enhanced psychological health

A great deal of attention has been given to the association between physical fitness and psychological health. The purpose of this view is to examine recent developments in the burgeoning exercise and psychological health literature and to explore avenues for future research. The current review focuses on research that has examined enhancement of psychological health and well-being among nonclinical populations since 1980. Four areas of psychological functioning are reviewed: (1) psychological well-being and mood, (2) personality and self-concept, (3) physiological stress responsivity and (4) cognition. Exercise appears to improve mood and psychological well-being as well as enhancing self-concept and self-esteem. Exercise appears to do little for personality functioning. Furthermore, mixed empirical support exists to suggest that exercise influences stress responsivity and cognitive functioning. However better research designs and procedures are still needed. Theories regarding the connection between exercise and psychological functioning as well as suggestions for future research are offered.     

Effects of exercise on anxiety: A review

Abstract

The focus of this review is physical exercise and its possible effectiveness as a means of reducing anxiety. This review is based on English language literature and covers the time period from 1958 to 1988. It provides an overview of the results of research studies carried out in the area of physical fitness and psychological health, more specifically anxiety. In doing so, it draws attention to methodological limitations associated with a number of these research studies. In addition, it describes the level of exercise considered necessary to achieve improved cardio-respiratory fitness (training effect). Conclusions are made which suggest mild support for the positive effect of exercise with some individuals for reducing anxiety. Some speculative explanations as to why exercise may be effective in reducing levels of state anxiety are discussed.     

A Meta-Analytic Comparison of Managerial Ratings and Self-Evaluations

The purpose of this study was to examine the equivalence of self-reports and managerial ratings of salesperson job performance. A meta-analysis showed that the two measures exhibited low convergent validity (mean corrected correlation = 0.19), which indicated that they are not interchangeable. The predictive validity of self-reports and managerial ratings was compared. Managerial ratings had a corrected mean correlation of 0.44 with objective performance, whereas the corrected mean correlation between self-reports and objective measures was 0.34. Further meta-analytic investigations showed that the divergence between self-reports and managerial ratings was attributable to the performance effect. A discussion of the findings and avenues for further research are also provided.     

Effectiveness of a primary care exercise referral intervention for changing physical self-perceptions over 9 months.

This study investigated the effectiveness of a 10-week primary care exercise referral intervention on the physical self-perceptions of 40-70 year olds. Participants (N=142) were assessed, randomized to an exercise or control group, and reassessed at 16 and 37 weeks. The Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP; K. R. Fox, 1990), fitness, physical activity, body mass index, body fat (skinfolds), and hip and waist circumference were assessed. A multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant Group X Time interactions, with the exercise group showing greater physical self-worth, physical condition, and physical health at 16 and 37 weeks. Changes in all PSPP scales at baseline and 37 weeks were related to changes in anthropometric measures and adherence to the 10-week exercise program but not to changes in submaximal fitness parameters.     

The Association Between Health and Cognitive Performance in a Population-Based Study of Older Adults: The Charlotte County Healthy Aging Study (CCHAS)

In the present study, the relationship between self-reports and objective measures of health status and measures of cognitive performance was examined. Participants consisted of 437 persons (M =72.91 years) from the Charlotte County Healthy Aging Study, a population-based sample of older adults. Cognitive performance was assessed by tests of episodic memory, perceptual speed, and attention. Health status was indexed by subjective ratings, self-reports, and objective measures. The health measures accounted for significant variance on both the Trailmaking A and B tests, accounting for a modest amount of variance (4.4% and 1.1%, respectively). The health measures were not significantly associated with performance on the measures of attention or episodic memory. The results suggest that health status is associated with processing speed to a greater degree than higher order cognitive processes.     

Relations among exercise type,self-objectification,and body image in the fitness centre environment: The role of reasons for exercise

ObjectiveThe study aimed to investigate different types of exercise, the role of exercise motivation and body image outcomes within the fitness centre environment.Design and methodParticipants were 571 female fitness class participants recruited from fitness centres. They ranged in age from 18 to 71 years and participated in a variety of fitness activities both within and outside of the fitness centre environment. Reasons for exercise, self-objectification, body esteem, and disordered eating symptomatology were assessed using questionnaire measures.ResultsTime spent exercising within the fitness centre environment was more highly related to body image and eating disturbance than time spent exercising outside of the fitness centre environment. Participation in cardio-based workouts (e.g., cardiovascular machines) was positively related to self-objectification, disordered eating behaviour, and appearance-related reasons for exercise, and negatively related to body esteem. In contrast, participation in yoga-based fitness classes was related to lower self-objectification and exercising more for health and fitness. Appearance-focused reasons for exercise were found to mediate the relationship between exercise types and self-objectification, disordered eating, and body esteem.ConclusionThe results show that the reasons women have for doing exercise provide a mechanism through which different types of exercise are associated with negative body image outcomes. Thus, despite the physical health-related benefits associated with regular physical activity, exercise motivated by appearance reasons (e.g., weight control) can lead to poorer body image in some women.     

Automation of Stress Recognition Using Subjective or Objective Measures

Automation of stress recognition involves collecting stress-reflecting data and then using a computational technique to estimate the stress level corresponding to that data. With the advent of objective sensors or mobile context measurement, automated stress recognition revolves around and is restricted to only these measures. Traditional subjective questionnaires and self-reports, though highly reliable, have been bounded to only clinical settings, without extending their scope to general population and natural environments. This review discusses some widely used questionnaires for measuring stress which can prove to be equally efficient to their conventional paper-based application when computerized. A summary on highly accepted objective measures of stress, including physiological, behavioural and contextual data, is provided next. Past research work using these subjective and objective measures for automatically recognizing stress is also reviewed. A comparative analysis of questionnaires and objective measures is conducted, which helped in highlighting significant advantages and disadvantages of the measures. Use of reports or questionnaires for automating stress recognition is suggested, owing to improved costs, high reliability and user trust.     

Acute psychological benefits of aerobic exercise: a field study into the effects of exercise characteristics

Eighty volunteers were tested in their natural exercise environment consisting of a fitness centre they regularly attended. Half of the sample exercised on a stationary bicycle, the other half on a treadmill. All participants filled in the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory before and after their 20 min of exercise that was performed at self-selected workload. The results revealed that exercise intensity and the other parallel measures like heart rate, perceived exercise intensity and estimates of burned calories were higher in participants who ran in contrast to those who cycled. There were no differences in self-reports of enjoyment of the exercise sessions and in the psychological improvements from pre- to post-exercise between the groups. It is concluded that significant psychological improvements occur even after a 20-min bout of exercise and these changes are independent of the workload or exercise intensity.     

Change in physical and psychological health over time in patients with cardiovascular disease: on the benefits of being self-determined,physically active,and eating well

This study tested a longitudinal model examining the roles of motivation and perceived competence in the prediction of physical activity (PA) and healthy eating (HE) in individuals with cardiovascular diseases, and the effects of adopting these behaviors on individuals’ health. Participants completed measures of global motivation (baseline), contextual motivation and perceived competence for PA and HE (3 months), and self-reports of PA and HE behaviors (6 months). Physiological indicators and life satisfaction were assessed at the baseline and at 12 months. Structural equation modeling supported that individuals with self-determined motivation (SDM) were more likely to feel competent in changing their lifestyle and to engage in moderate and strenuous (vs. mild) exercise and HE behaviors, which had beneficial effects on individuals’ physiological and psychological health. This research confirms the respective roles of SDM and perceived competence in the health behavior change process and emphasizes the key function of SDM in the adherence of healthy behaviors over time.     

Is anxiety about health associated with desire to exercise, physical activity, and exercise dependence?

There are significant gaps in the literature regarding the behavioural consequences of health anxiety. Although past research indicates that health anxiety is associated with distinctive maladaptive behaviours, such as reassurance seeking, the relationship between health anxiety and wellness-related behaviours, such as physical activity, has not been adequately examined. Given that health anxiety is associated with excessive attempts to ensure health and avoid illness, health anxiety could be potentially related to extreme physical activity, known as exercise dependence. Using the cognitive behavioural model of health anxiety as a framework, this exploratory study investigated the relationships between health anxiety, exercise desire, physical activity, and exercise dependence.Undergraduate university students (n = 144) completed a battery of online measures. Results indicated that only the perceptual component of health anxiety, namely hypervigilance to somatic symptoms, was related to exercise desire and components of exercise dependence. Implications of the findings are discussed and future research avenues are explored.     

Dimensions of control: Mediational analyses of the stress–health relationship

Multiple dimensions of control are examined in relations with stress and physical health outcomes. Factor analysis of six measures of control from 187 elderly individuals yielded two factors: Self-Efficacy, people’s beliefs about their ability to exercise control over themselves and their environment, and Need for Power and Autonomy, the desire to control others and exercise self-determination. Various hypotheses regarding the process by which control impacts the relationship between stress and health were then tested. Self-Efficacy partially mediated and moderated the relationship between stress and physical health, whereas the Need for Power and Autonomy served neither function. Self-efficacy appears to be a lens through which older adults view stress, affecting the way it is interpreted and managed, ultimately impacting health outcomes.     

Sociocultural expectations of attractiveness for males

Sociocultural expectations of attractiveness for women have been studied extensively, but little research has focused on this topic with males. Using the two most popular men's fashion magazines (GQand Esquire), this study examined article and advertisement content as well as male models' body sizes to determine the extent to which men have received messages from the media on how to behave (e.g., diet, exercise) and look over a 32 year period (i.e., 1960–1992). Linear trend analyses revealed that the number of messages concerning physical fitness and health have increased as has the general popularity of health and fitness activities. Messages concerning weight and beauty, however, have declined since the late 1970s. In spite of these changes, measures of male models' body sizes have not changed significantly since the 1960s. These findings are discussed in the context of the sociocultural approach to eating disorders and recommendations for future research are provided.     

Behavioral and cognitive correlates of exercise self-schemata

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of exercise self-schemata to both cognitive and behavioral concomitants including exercise self-efficacy, attitudes toward fitness, self-perceptions of fitness, and self-report of exercise behavior. Participants were 161 undergraduate students who subsequently were categorized into groups defined by the authors as "exercise schematics," "nonexercise schematics," "aschematics," and unclassified. Results indicated that exercise schematics reported greater total caloric expenditure, higher frequency of exercise behavior in the past as well as future expectations to exercise, greater self-perceptions of physical fitness, and more favorable attitudes toward fitness than either nonexercise schematics or aschematics. Furthermore, exercise schematics expressed higher levels of exercise self-efficacy than did nonexercise schematics. The results clearly support earlier findings concerning exercise self-schemata and exercise behavior and further indicate that schematics also differ from others in important cognitive-motivational determinants of exercise such as self-efficacy and perceptions of physical fitness. Future research should define the role of exercise self-schemata both theoretically and practically in order to enrich our understanding of and facilitate the enhancement of exercise adherence.     

Personality correlates of physical fitness

In this article, I examine the relation between personality and physical fitness. One group (N = 97) of male adults completed the Hogan Personality Inventory and five nationally recognized physical fitness batteries. A second group (N = 35) completed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and a set of medical and physical performance assessments. Results indicate that physical fitness must be defined in multidimensional terms and that fitness is related to self-confidence and self-discipline. Measures of psychopathology were unrelated to measures of health and fitness. These data suggest that the personal qualities associated with fitness are also those that promote and extend health.     

Motivation is not enough: prediction of risk behavior following diagnosis of coronary heart disease from the theory of planned behavior.

Perceived behavioral control (PBC) and intention, the proximal predictors from the theory of planned behavior (TPB), were used to predict cardiovascular risk behaviors in 597 patients 1 year after diagnosis with coronary heart disease. The outcome measures were self-report measures of exercise plus objective measures of fitness (distance walked in 6 min) and cotinine-confirmed smoking cessation. In multivariate analyses incorporating both PBC and intention, PBC predicted exercise, distance walked, and smoking cessation, but intention was not a reliable independent predictor of any health behavior measured. Thus, the effective theoretical component of the TPB was PBC. Similar predictions could derive from social-cognitive theory. In coronary patients, behavioral change needs to address issues of action implementation rather than motivational factors alone.