THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR STUDYING FEMALE MARRIAGE MIGRANTS

Transnational marriages account for a significant proportion of family-based immigration to North America. An increasing number of immigrant men are choosing to marry women from their countries of origin, and an increasing number of nonimmigrant men are choosing to marry women from other countries. Existing studies on the experiences of foreign brides entering North America have highlighted their vulnerability to spousal maltreatment, including unique forms of immigration abuse (e.g., threats of deportation). Their vulnerability to maltreatment has been attributed to the gender-insensitive nature of family immigration policies, the women's lack of awareness of their rights and immigration status, and their husbands' cultural beliefs about women's roles. This article describes three interrelated theoretical frameworks that can inform further research, practice, and policy development related to female marriage migrants. The frameworks draw on cross-cultural models of gender-based violence, seminal work on the psychology of women, and international human rights research.     

Education of Foreign Children in Japan: Local Versus National Initiatives

Immigration has long been a controversial subject in Japan, with the country’s historic aversion to foreign populations well noted. This article seeks to discuss recent developments in Japanese immigration policy, looking specifically at how both local governments and the national government address education issues for foreign children. Examining the specific case of Kawasaki City’s foreign student educational policies in detail, this article compares local initiatives to national policy developments, arguing that Kawasaki has been a pioneer in many cases and that the national government has ultimately adopted similar resolutions. The national government, for its part, has been slow to take up issues addressing immigrants, trailing more progressive cities like Kawasaki, but has slowly been making efforts to improve foreign student education. In the broader sense, this article argues two additional points: that largely ethnically homogenous countries like Japan are no longer able to completely ignore their immigrant populations and that highly centralized states are moving slowly toward empowering their local governments.     

Shortage of highly skilled workers in Hong Kong and policy responses

As Hong Kong develops into a knowledge-based economy, there is a strong increase in demand for highly educated and highly skilled workers. At the same time, many other countries are also experiencing shortages of highly-skilled workers as the development of hi-tech and information technology sectors have become an international trend. In this article, we study the changes in demand and supply of highly-skilled workers in Hong Kong and analyse the role that natural population growth, immigration, emigration, and return migration play in relation to the supply of highly-skilled workers. We also give an account of the policy responses of the government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in its attempt to attract highly-skilled professionals as well as the challenges facing Hong Kong in the light of keen international competition.     

Not in My Backyard! Authoritarianism,Social Dominance Orientation,and Support for Strict Immigration Policies at Home and Abroad

Many controversial immigration policies have recently emerged across the United States and abroad. We explore the role of national context in shaping support for such policies. Specifically, we examine whether the extent to which ideological attitudes—Right‐Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)—predict policy support is moderated by the national context of the policy. Across three studies, United States citizens read about a controversial immigration policy affecting either their own country (United States) or a foreign country (Israel or Singapore) and indicated their support for the policy. Results reveal that SDO predicts policy support, regardless of its national context; this effect is mediated by perceived competition. Conversely, RWA predicts policy support only if the policy affects domestic immigration; this effect is mediated by perceptions of cultural threat. Consistent with prior research, the present findings highlight the role of perceived cultural threat to one's ingroup and perceived competition in shaping attitudes toward immigration and shed light on some of the motivations underlying the recent rise in popularity of strict immigration policies.     

Missed Opportunity: International Students in Canada Face Barriers to Permanent Residence

With their youth, Canadian post-secondary credentials, fluency in an official language, and time already spent in Canada, international students represent an ideal immigration source for this country. In many cases, they have lived in communities where they would be happy to continue living and working if provided the opportunity. Yet, despite recognition by the federal government of the attractiveness of international students, federal policies enacted in 2015 have inadvertently created barriers for international students wishing to become permanent residents of Canada. The Express Entry processing system has left international students in Canada in precarious situations at risk of losing their ability to work and to immigrate. This policy brief describes the challenges that Express Entry poses for international students and makes recommendations to the federal government to address these barriers.     

Portugal’s Immigration and Integration Policies: a Case Apart?

Most countries in Europe have seen the rise of anti-immigrant political parties in recent years and many have implemented more restrictive immigration measures. Portugal has moved in the opposite direction, seeking to produce some of the best practices and laws on immigration and immigrant integration. Traditional theories of immigration policy fail to account for the Portuguese case, and regional models of immigration overlook ways in which Portugal diverges. Instead, Portuguese policies are best understood as the product of (1) a political consensus on immigration that derives in part from Portugal’s social-revolutionary democratic transition; (2) innovative institutions that enjoy both autonomy and political support, enable a “whole-of-government” approach, and mediate social pressures created by immigration; and (3) leadership choices made by politicians, bureaucrats, and civil society groups to forge consensus and seek inclusion. The Portuguese case signals the importance of adopting other lenses for the comparative study of immigration policies that go beyond regional models and highlight policy similarities among countries from distinct regions.     

Taming the Imams: European Governments and Islamic Preachers since 9/11

The bombings in Madrid (2004) and London (2005) and the murder of the Dutch filmmaker Theo van Gogh in 2004 alerted European governments to their susceptibility to terrorism perpetrated by unassimilated Muslim immigrants. Whether they had pursued multicultural immigration policies or regulated their immigrant communities closely, European countries began adopting stricter measures in the attempt to contain—if not transform—'radical' Islam. There appears to be a convergence toward a rigid model that includes highly-visible deportations, demonstrations of support for pro-government Muslim leaders, and infiltration of mosques and Muslim communities, as well as sponsoring or endorsing programs to train Euro-friendly imams. This study examines the development and diversity of such policies as they affect imams in various European countries with special reference to immigration policy, domestic surveillance and education programs in France, Britain and the Netherlands.     

Understanding the Labour Market Participation of Skilled Immigrant Women in Switzerland: The Interplay of Class, Ethnicity, and Gender

Switzerland has recently adopted immigration policies that give preference to skilled migrants, the assumption being that migrants with higher education will integrate easily. Our study of 57 skilled immigrant women from Latin America, the Middle East and Southeastern Europe shows that this assumption is largely unjustified. Most of the women cannot use their social and cultural capital to establish themselves in the upper segments of the labour market. A third are not integrated in the labour market and a quarter occupy positions below their skill-level. A further third work at their skill-level but only irregularly. The differentiated participation of these immigrants in the labour market is well explained by analysing the interplay of class, ethnicity and gender.     

To Stay or Return: Migration Intentions of Students from People’s Republic of China in Saskatchewan, Canada

There is a growing policy concern in Canada regarding the facilitation of foreign students’ transition from temporary residents to permanent residents. Interestingly, academic attention to the issue is somewhat lacking. By focusing on the Chinese undergraduate student at the University of Saskatchewan in Canada, this study attempts to identify the factors which influence their migration intentions. The findings confirm the important effects of students’ demographic characteristics, premove traits, Canadian experiences, parental expectations, as well as related aspiration factors. In addition, we find that female and male students are different from each other in terms of the factors that determine their intentions to stay in Canada. In light of the findings, we suggest that, in spite of gender differences, social and emotional adaptations are as critical as economic adaptation in facilitating temporary residents’ intentions to stay. Furthermore, we contend that changes in immigration policy to attract foreign students to stay do motivate their immigration intention to some extent, but we also recommend that extended research needs to be done to examine the effects of most recent policy changes on foreign students’ intended or actual migration.     

Disaggregating immigration policy: The politics of skilled labor recruitment in the U.S.

Gary P. Freeman and David K. Hill argue that the U.S. system of multiple visa categories and the often distorting business interests behind these, point to a far from rational economic construction of policy. They indicate the difficulties of reform, even in the absence of strongly organized public opposition, and the degree to which path-dependence seems to determine overall outcomes in the policy process. Curiously, the authors suggest that highly skilled migration policy in the U.S. is a wholly self-contained national affair. National politics, rather than global economic pressures, drive the twists and turns of U.S. immigration policies, with key roles being played by high tech employers, professional associations, pro and anti-immigrant organizations, and even associations of immigration lawyers. There appears to be little space in their accounts for the kind of global legal/institutional influences signaled by WTO reforms or by the importance of global multinationals. Freeman and Hill offer useful analytical frameworks to differentiate between distinct forms of migration by technical workers, and the often contradictory state policies and the politics linked to them.     

Responding to regional labour demand: International migration and labour markets in New Zealand’s regions

New Zealand, like Australia and Canada, has long had an active policy of seeking immigrants to “grow” its population and economy. Unlike the other two countries, New Zealand does not have a federal system of government, and the absence of a state or provincial level of legislative authority has meant that policies to promote immigration and to meet labour market needs have been centrally driven. In the latter decades of the twentieth century, labour market activation policies in New Zealand were focussed on supply, including the engagement or re-engagement of workers. In the early years of the twenty-first century, there have been significant labour shortages, particularly (but not only) of skilled labour in a range of industries and regions, as well as changes in the nature of labour market engagement associated with the rise of various forms of non-standard employment. The policy focus has been increasingly demand-focussed and driven by local labour market considerations. It has also increasingly revolved around recruiting immigrant labour in response to local skill shortages. This paper discusses the way in which regions in New Zealand have developed schemes that are designed to attract immigrant labour to meet local labour demand as well as provide a key driver in local economic development.     

Are Peripheral Regions Benefiting from National Policies Aimed at Attracting Skilled Migrants? Case Study of the Northern Territory of Australia

Complex and interrelated trends in population and labour market dynamics in peripheral regions of developed countries have compelled them to use international skilled migration to address their skill shortages and facilitate economic development. Using the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia as a case study, this paper examines if and how these regions can benefit from a national policy for skilled migration, including the regional migration policy, which Australia has been operating since 1996–1997. The paper situates the regional migration policy in a context of the global competition for skills, explains how it came about and outlines the key characteristics of the NT as a peripheral region. An innovative approach to immigration data analysis permits formulating four propositions about the nature of international migration to peripheral regions. The analysis consists of tracking over a period of 17 years, the dynamics between all components of Australia’s and the Northern Territory’s permanent additions and comparing changes in the composition of their respective skilled migration streams. The paper proposes that peripheral regions benefit from skilled migration with a lagged effect as compared to Australia as a whole. It suggests that in order to better address skill shortages, they should also develop the capacity of the locally resident immigrant groups.     

Nationalism and Immigration

Can states' immigration policies favor groups with whom they are culturally and historically tied? I shall answer this question here positively, but in a qualified manner. My arguments in support of this answer will be of distributive justice, presupposing a globalist rather than a localist approach to justice. They will be based on a version of liberal nationalism according to which individuals can have fundamental interests in their national culture, interests which are rooted in freedom, identity, and especially in ensuring the meaningfulness of their endeavor. The prevalent means for protecting these interests is the right to national self-determination. Many believe that this right should be conceived of as a right to a state. I shall show that this conception of self-determination implies purely nationalist immigration policies. I shall present reasons for rejecting such policies, reasons which together with other reasons form a strong case against the statist interpretation of the right to self-determination. They form a strong case in favor of understanding self-determination as a bundle of privileges to which nations are entitled within the states dominating their homelands. Some of these privileges have to do with immigration policies. I shall argue for three principles which should regulate these immigration privileges and discuss the relation between them and Israel's Law of Return.     

Crossing the Border: Latino Attitudes Toward Immigration Policy

In the midst of the ongoing and highly polarized immigration debate, it seems that little attention has been paid to how Latinos view efforts to address the issues of undocumented immigrants residing in the United States and enhanced enforcement efforts along the U.S.–Mexico border. Consequently, questions arise as to the degree of support for or rejection of such measures within the Latino community and among the various segments of that community. Do U.S.-born Latinos, foreign-born naturalized citizens, and undocumented immigrants from various parts of Latin America have similar or divergent views on these issues? It is generally assumed that ethnicity is an important factor in influencing attitudes toward immigrants and immigration policies. Some studies have found that foreign-born Latinos have more positive attitudes toward immigration than native-born Latinos due in part to their shared immigration experience. There are, however, other studies demonstrating that Latino immigrants have often expressed support for more restrictive immigration policies. It may hold true, in fact, that many Latinos have ambiguous and conflicting attitudes about these issues. This article will try to shed some light on Latinos’ attitudes regarding specific policy measures by analyzing data from the Pew Hispanic Center National Survey of Latinos, which allows for considerable differentiation among various sectors of the Latino population.     

Survey of mental health of foreign students

The multifaceted nature of problems foreign students face have led some researchers to conclude that these students tend to suffer from poor health during their overseas sojourn. This assertion is examined among foreign students at the University of Bergen by means of a questionnaire survey. Loneliness, tiredness, sadness and worrying were reported as a frequent source of problem by nearly one in four of over 300 respondents. Students reported a decline in their general state of health as well as a rise in the occurrence of syndrome-like tendencies resembling paranoia, anxiety, depression and somatic complaints. These tendencies were attributed to certain psychosocial factors such as information received regarding study opportunities, social contacts with other tenants in the hall of residence and future job opportunities. Scandinavian students on the whole tended to have better mental health than students from the other countries. The implications of impaired health among foreign students is discussed.     

Immigration Policies in Italy: Their Impact on the Lives of First-Generation Moroccan and Egyptian Migrants

This paper analyzes the impact of Italian immigration policies on migrants’ lives. Policies and changes in policies can affect migrants’ capabilities to stabilize themselves in the host country, in terms of legal residence and secure labor conditions, as well as their chances of becoming part of the host society. We argue that, together with border controls, these are crucial ways through which immigration policies may have the postulated effects on the lives of migrants. We use data from 59 in-depth interviews conducted with first-generation Moroccan and Egyptian migrants living in two Italian cities, Turin and Rome, in the period 2011–2013. The results show that Italian immigration policies do not successfully control migration inflow, but effectively hinder the stability of migrants’ legal status and the status transition from temporary residence to permanent residence and subsequent Italian citizenship. In this way, Italian immigration policies largely affect migrants’ capabilities to be part of the host country; this gets in the way of integration, social cohesion, and future migration projects.     

Symbolic analysts or indentured servants? Indian high-tech migrants in America’s information economy

Paula Chakravartty contrasts the everyday experiences of Indian entrepreneurs from Bangalore, who are very successfully developing that region as a high-tech global metropolis, with the often unhappy, mid-level educated Indian migrants to the U.S. who now come to the U.S. on H-1B visas because they were not “good enough” to break into the elite schools and best high-tech operations in India. Because of foreign status, Indian migrants often face “glass ceilings” in professional advancement not commensurate with education, experience or professional attainment, as Chakravartty points out. She maintains that due to the precariousness of the H-1B type immigration status, it can be argued skilled migrants to the U.S. have frequently been exploited by employers, having become the equivalent of “high-tech braceros.” Chakravartty also explores the evolving ties of international students in the U.S. and high-tech workers from India in Silicon Valley that have led to kinds of globally circulating currents of hi-tech labor.     

Assimilation and ethnic boundaries: Israeli students' altitudes toward soviet immigrants

The attitudes of Israeli students toward new immigrants from the former Soviet Union were examined against the theoretical framework of the sociology of ethnicity and sociology of education. The main research question explored was which ethnic relationship model (assimilation, pluralism, or separation) best described the attitudes and self-reported behavior of Israeli youth toward the new immigrants. Israeli students' changing attitudes toward their immigrant counterparts were also investigated, as well as actual Israeli educational practices (not only declared policies) regarding Soviet immigrants. The study was conducted in grades 4-11 at schools in northern Israel. The results indicated positive attitudes and openness of relations by the Israelis toward the new immigrant students in the first year following their immigration. However, the attitudes were less positive in the second year. Although the Israeli students manifested positive attitudes toward immigration and to the immigrants themselves, these views were largely assimilatory; Israeli cultural capital was obviously dominant, and it was expected to be accepted as such by the newcomers. The findings point to Israeli assimilatory educational practice; immigrants are expected to blend in, abandoning their past heritage and culture.     

Selecting Talented Migrants: Majority and Minority Perspectives

Many countries seek to specifically attract talented migrants in order to match the needs of national economies. In addition to the well-known intergroup antagonism between natives and immigrants, such immigration policies targeting talented migrants imply differentiation within the immigrant group, using normative criteria to distinguish desirable and economically useful immigrants from undesirable ones. Based on European Social Survey data (Round 7, N = 9856) comprised of national citizens from six multinational countries, we show that national majorities support individualized, “cherry picking” immigration policies to a greater degree than historical national minorities and that this support is associated with national majorities' stronger sense of identification with the country and its individualistic norms. We thereby conceptualize a novel facet of multiculturalism based on individual justice principles that is rarely at the forefront of research on immigration and multiculturalism.     

Intentional collaboration,predictable complicity,and proactive prevention: U.S. schools’ ethical responsibilities in slowing the school-to-deportation pipeline

ABSTRACT

In the United States, constitutional and statutory law reinforce the right of all children to receive an education, regardless of their citizenship or immigration status. In a time of heightened anti-immigrant sentiment and law enforcement, however, partnerships among school districts, local law enforcement, and the U.S. Departments of Justice and Homeland Security subject undocumented and unaccompanied minor students to indefensible levels of risk for detention and deportation. We identify three stances that U.S. schools may take in the face of a potential ‘school-to-deportation pipeline.’ Schools that engage in intentional collaboration actively increase detention and deportation by referring students to immigration officials for criminal, non-criminal, and even non-disciplinary activity. Schools that engage in predictable complicity may not intend to subject their undocumented and unaccompanied minor students to detention or deportation, but still put students at risk by involving police in school policies. We argue that U.S. schools should instead engage in proactive protection of immigrant students and families, including actively resisting federal policies when necessary.