The P600 in Implicit Artificial Grammar Learning

The suitability of the artificial grammar learning (AGL) paradigm to capture relevant aspects of the acquisition of linguistic structures has been empirically tested in a number of EEG studies. Some have shown a syntax‐related P600 component, but it has not been ruled out that the AGL P600 effect is a response to surface features (e.g., subsequence familiarity) rather than the underlying syntax structure. Therefore, in this study, we controlled for the surface characteristics of the test sequences (associative chunk strength) and recorded the EEG before (baseline preference classification) and after (preference and grammaticality classification) exposure to a grammar. After exposure, a typical, centroparietal P600 effect was elicited by grammatical violations and not by unfamiliar subsequences, suggesting that the AGL P600 effect signals a response to structural irregularities. Moreover, preference and grammaticality classification showed a qualitatively similar ERP profile, strengthening the idea that the implicit structural mere‐exposure paradigm in combination with preference classification is a suitable alternative to the traditional grammaticality classification test.     

人工语法中的内隐学习实验研究

用Reber等人发明的人工语法和人工语法学习程序,研究在复杂规则学习中的内隐学习与外显学习过程.实验结果发现内隐学习中启动效应存在,内隐学习效应明显,支持Reber等人提出的内隐学习理论;对内隐记忆与外显记忆关系的研究,支持杨治良等(1998)提出的内隐和外显记忆的"钢筋水泥"结构性模型的假设.     

内隐学习研究的核心方法——人工语法范式

本文是对近三十年来内隐学习的核心研究方法--人工语法范式--的一个总结.文章分三个部分,分别介绍了人工语法范式的三个要素.第一部分介绍了学习材料要素,即限定状态语法和双条件语法.第二部分介绍了指导语要素,着重讲解了它的实验性分离功能.第三部分介绍了程序要素,伴随内隐学习研究问题的深入和复杂化趋势,循序演绎了研究者对人工语法范式程序所做的调整.     

Connectionist and Memory-Array Models of Artificial Grammar Learning

Subjects exposed to strings of letters generated by a finite state grammar can later classify grammatical and nongrammatical test strings, even though they cannot adequately say what the rules of the grammar are (e.g., Reber, 1989). The MINERVA 2 (Hintzman, 1986) and Medin and Schaffer (1978) memory-array models and a number of connectionist outoassociator models are tested against experimental data by deriving mainly parameter-free predictions from the models of the rank order of classification difficulty of test strings. The importance of different assumptions regarding the coding of features (How should the absence of a feature be coded? Should single letters or digrams be coded?), the learning rule used (Hebb rule vs. delta rule), and the connectivity (Should features be predicted only by previous features in the string, or by all features simultaneously?) is investigated by determining the performance of the models with and without each assumption. Only one class of connectionist model (the simultaneous delta rule) passes all the tests. It is shown that this class of model can be regarded by abstracting a set of representative but incomplete rules of the grammar.     

人工语法学习中意识加工的渐进发展

内隐学习研究致力于探讨学习活动的意识加工程度, 当前相关的研究逻辑从传统的意识二分观转向渐进意识假设。本研究通过对人工语法范式进行改造, 并借鉴加工分离程序的有关思想, 在学习阶段引入双重测量任务, 并根据双重任务成绩计算分离出相应学习时段的意识与无意识成分的贡献分数, 从而考察在内隐学习过程中两种加工成分的动态变化特征。研究结果支持渐进意识假设, 在学习进程中, 无意识成分和意识成分都呈现出渐进发展的趋势; 而随学习的深入, 两种成分呈现出不同的变化模式, 中后期意识加工快速增长, 无意识加工则保持平缓发展, 渐进意识系统整体呈现向外显学习推进的发展态势。     

再探人工语法学习迁移效应机制

通过两个实验,检验人工语法学习迁移效应产生机制的组块信息迁移和抽象类比迁移假说.结果表明:当序列表层结构不同时,被试能够学习和迁移非重复成分间的序列依存性.学习序列与语法测验序列分布特征间的匹配会影响非重复成分间依存性的迁移;重复成分间序列依存性的迁移.在一定程度上不以序列的分布特征为基础.     

人工语法学习模型述评

述评了近年来影响较大的四个人工语法学习模型——THIYOS分类器系统、竞争组块模型、范例模型和联系者模型。它们都认为,人工语法学习所获得的知识中,一部分以规则、组块、总体类似性以及激活模式等形式到达意识层面,另一部分则残存在力量模式中,确定什么内容适合到达意识层面;后者即为内隐知识。这四种模型各抒己见,各有特点,并都为内隐学习的机理提供了重要依据。     

Implicit Learning of an Invariant: Just Say No

Following exposure to 30 four-digit numbers containing an invariant “3”, subjects are found falsely to recognize novel four-digit numbers containing this invariant (positives) in preference to novel numbers that do not contain the invariant (negatives). Despite this false recognition, they are generally unable to report the rule relating test positives to the positives seen during the learning phase. This finding has been taken to show implicit learning of a rule. Two experiments are reported here which show that it is not necessary to learn this rule in order to perform at above-chance levels on this test. Most of the effect can be explained in terms of the rejection of particularly distinctive test items that are more prevalent in the test negatives. This rejection appears to be mediated by knowledge that is potentially explicit as opposed to implicit, and we present tentative evidence that it is rule-based as opposed to analogic.     

Meaning and Movement: Exploring the Deep Connections to Education

Many in education suggest that to have studentsadopt healthy and active lifestyles, then theymust be offered meaning rich physical activityexperiences. This paper adds to thisconversation in two ways. First, this paperadds depth and richness to traditionalconceptualizations of the meaning in movement.In doing so, we interrogate the physical,cognitive and affective meaning that studentsmay derive from participation in movement.Second, this paper examines the role ofphysical activity in theme-based, integratedcurriculum. We highlight how physical activitycan be incorporated into theme-based units insubstantial and non-trivial ways.     

The Role of Simple Semantics in the Process of Artificial Grammar Learning

This study investigated the effect of semantic information on artificial grammar learning (AGL). Recursive grammars of different complexity levels (regular language, mirror language, copy language) were investigated in a series of AGL experiments. In the with-semantics condition, participants acquired semantic information prior to the AGL experiment; in the without-semantics control condition, participants did not receive semantic information. It was hypothesized that semantics would generally facilitate grammar acquisition and that the learning benefit in the with-semantics conditions would increase with increasing grammar complexity. Experiment 1 showed learning effects for all grammars but no performance difference between conditions. Experiment 2 replicated the absence of a semantic benefit for all grammars even though semantic information was more prominent during grammar acquisition as compared to Experiment 1. Thus, we did not find evidence for the idea that semantics facilitates grammar acquisition, which seems to support the view of an independent syntactic processing component.     

人工语法学习中习得知识的分离:基于信号检测论和结构知识的视角

习得知识的意识觉知问题一直以来是内隐学习领域的研究热点和难点。以加工分离程序来分解击中率和虚报率、以结构知识中意识和无意识测量为视角,采用2（测验方式：SDTT,SKT）×2（学习程度：30试次,60试次）混合设计,试图去分离人工语法学习中习得的意识知识和无意识知识。结果发现：（1）学习程度影响到习得的无意识知识,但还未影响到习得的意识知识;（2）在分离人工语法学习的习得知识上,SDTT的敏感性高于SKT;（3）SKT夸大了元认知中的意识成分。     

Lessons Learned From a Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial Testing an Inhibitory Learning Approach to Exposure in Anxious Youth

Accumulating evidence from basic and translational research indicates that fear extinction may be best explained by principles of “inhibitory learning,” by which prefrontal cortical structures inhibit activity in the amygdala. New guidelines for the clinical practice of exposure therapy have arisen from research on inhibitory learning, but these guidelines have received little empirical testing in clinical samples of youth receiving treatment for anxiety disorders. We investigated the acceptability, feasibility, and initial efficacy of conducting exposure therapy for anxiety disorders in youth according to clinical guidelines developed from basic research on inhibitory learning principles, using a pilot randomized controlled trial design. Thirteen youths (ages 7 to 16) were recruited from a university hospital-based pediatric outpatient clinic to participate in a 9-week treatment study and were randomized to either an inhibitory learning-based exposure condition or a standard exposure condition. Results supported the feasibility and acceptability of an inhibitory learning-based approach to exposure therapy in youth and, despite the small sample size, effect sizes were in favor of the inhibitory learning approach on several measures. Differences between the standard exposure and inhibitory learning conditions are discussed using two case examples. Discussion of results and lessons learned may contribute to changes in clinical guidelines for optimally effective practice of exposure.     

内隐学习在教学上的应用

内隐学习的研究,在心理学中的意义重大。那么,什么是内隐学习?很多研究者认为,内隐与外显的认知过程属于复杂认知任务的操作(Brooks,1978;Evans,1972;pollio,1974;Seger,1994;Howard,1997)。外显学习中发现和控制任务变量的机制类似于有意识的问题解决,它包括一个试图形成任务的心理表象,搜寻同功能系统的知识的记忆,以及试图建立和检验任务操作的心理模型(Mathews,1989)。这整个思维过程是有意识的,主观努力是被清晰意识到的。内隐学习则比外显思维更有力,且是自动的、无意识进行的(Mathews,1989;Fletcher,1998)。换言之,内隐学习是在(某种意义上)不知道刺激之间或刺激与行为之间存在连接的情况下发生的。     

From Metaphysics and Philosophical Theses to Grammar: Wittgenstein's Turn

The paper discusses the question ‘what does Wittgenstein mean by not having theses in philosophy?’ His conception of philosophy without theses, as this is articulated in his later work, is understood as a response to the problem of dogmatism in philosophy and a non‐metaphysical form of philosophy. I argue that although already the Tractatus aims at a philosophy devoid of theses, it involves a relapse back to such theses. Its conception of philosophical clarification involves a particular conception of the essence of propositions. This way the form of the activity of clarification is determined by a philosophical/metaphysical thesis. In his later philosophy Wittgenstein, however, manages to solve this problem. His solution, explained with the help of the metaphor of ‘turning our whole investigation around’, consists of a change in the comprehension of the status of philosophical statements. For instance rules (e.g. definitions) and examples are understood as what he calls ‘objects of comparison’. Such objects of comparison are something that cases of language use (to be investigated with the purpose of clarification) are to be compared with, but the philosopher is not to make the claim that such objects of comparison show what the cases of language use under examination must be. The modality (expressed by ‘must’) is a characteristic of the philosopher's mode of presentation. It should not be claimed to be a feature of his object of investigation (the uses of language to be clarified).     

直觉对内隐学习优势效应的特异性贡献

已有人工语法的内隐学习研究中一个关键的问题是被试在不同指导语诱发下究竟形成了什么样的知识表征？实验借助结构知识的测量方式, 采用记忆和规则探索两种指导语, 考察了两组被试所获得的深层知识表征(结构知识)。结果发现：(1)在记忆指导语条件下, 被试获得了语法规则; (2)直觉在记忆指导语条件下贡献突出, 表现出特异性。该结果表明记忆指导语引发了被试基于直觉区分人工语法规则的内隐学习优势效应。     

Construing the Meaning of Authenticity in University Teaching: Comparing Explicit to Implicit Theories

Although recent literature on university teaching highlights “authenticity” as an important concept, the meaning of this complex notion remains elusive. Sternberg (1990 Sternberg, R. 1990. “Wisdom and its relations to intelligence and creativity”. In Wisdom, its nature, origins, and development, Edited by: Sternberg, R. J. 142–159. Cambridge, , UK: Cambridge University Press.  [Google Scholar]) proposed that we gain deeper insight into phenomena that are assumed to be of profound meaning but remain insufficiently understood if, alongside explicit theories of experts, we also consider the implicit theories of nonspecialists. This repertory grid study explored with a sample of lecturers their personal conceptions of authenticity in teaching and how these compare to explicit theories developed by educationalists and philosophers. Implications for theory and professional development, as well as future directions for research, are offered.     

Optimizing Exposure Therapy for Pathological Health Anxiety: Considerations From the Inhibitory Learning Approach

Exposure therapy has demonstrated its efficacy in the treatment of pathological health anxiety—however, psychotherapy research reveals that many patients do not show a clinically significant change. Therefore, improvements are necessary to optimize psychotherapy for pathological health anxiety. Most treatment rationales refer to habituation during exposure as the central mechanism of change. However, there is evidence that extinction learning is mediated by inhibitory learning processes. Targeting these processes may help to improve treatment outcomes in pathological health anxiety. The aim of this review was to adapt, from the inhibitory learning approach and empirical findings, the most promising strategies for the exposure-based treatment of pathological health anxiety. The exposure-optimizing strategies adapted are expectancy violation, combination, variability in contexts and stimuli, affect labeling, and removal of safety signals. A case example illustrates how to implement these methods for patients with pathological health anxiety.     

Learning to Earn Is Not Learning to Live: Student Development Educators As Meaning Makers

The article argues that student personnel professionals must become knowledgeable about the implications of the learning-earning conflict in higher education. Through the use of a case study, the authors discuss several issues related to career training in higher education. They offer an alternative model for career development that is based on helping students discover and create meaning in their studies. The principle of meaning making is an elaboration of Frankl's work and projects a new importance for student development education.     

Observational Learning From Internal Feedback: A Simulation of an Adaptive Learning Method

Much natural learning occurs by observation without explicit feedback or tutoring, yet few models of learning address this class of tasks. Further, many natural cases of observational learning are complex, and efficient learning seems to demand strategic learning procedures. The present work adopts a design perspective and asks what learning mechanisms would be both useful and feasible for natural induction. Work on closely related learning problems is briefly reviewed and a model for observational rule learning is proposed and simulated. The model extends learning mechanisms developed for explicit learning with feedback to less structured, observational tasks. In particular, the focused sampling mechanism, which is an extension of the attentional learning procedure developed by Zeaman and House (1963), is introduced. The operation of an attentional learning procedure is less clear when extended to learning without feedback, so a simulation was done to evaluate the performance of the model. A series of simulated experiments were run, comparing performance of the learning model with and without the focused sampling component. We evaluated whether and when focused sampling benefits observational learning, investigated the effects of different distributions of systematic and unsystematic features, and compared observational learning to learning with feedback. Results of the simulation suggest that focused sampling does benefit learning, that benefit increases with the complexity of the learning task, and that learning with and learning without feedback exhibit differences in how each is affected by changes in the learning problem. Suggestions about the relation to human data are offered.