Performance Excellence: A Personal Perspective on the Link Between Sport and Business

This article provides a personal perspective on the link between excellence in sport and business. It traces the author's transition from sport psychologist to business consultant before identifying specific areas in which direct links can be drawn between the two domains. Specifically, five major areas are addressed: organizational issues, in which a demands, supports, constraints approach is outlined; stress, including a model of stress in leaders and a model of stress and coping; leadership, in which a model of leadership and how it relates to performance is presented; high-performing teams, based on a create, unite, perform (CUP) model of team building, team work, and team effectiveness; and one-to-one coaching/consulting, in which common areas across sport and business are identified. The general conclusion is that the principles of elite performance in sport are easily transferable to the business context, and also that sport has a considerable amount to learn from excellence in business.     

Evolutionary sport and exercise psychology: Integrating proximate and ultimate explanations

ObjectivesThis review aims to demonstrate the utility of integrating the insights of evolutionary psychology with sport and exercise psychology. Specifically, we offer a primer on evolutionary psychology that we then discuss in the context of several research avenues in sport and exercise. Next, we discuss how evolutionary psychology can inform our understanding of sporting culture.DesignReview paper.MethodsTheory and research are selectively reviewed in efforts to demonstrate the utility and limits of evolutionary psychology as an approach to sport and exercise psychology.Results and conclusionsEvolutionary psychology offers researchers in sport and exercise psychology an improved capacity to produce proximate explanations (i.e., how psychological mechanisms interact with the environment to produce behavior) by generating productive and novel hypotheses from ultimate explanations (i.e., why a psychological mechanism evolved a particular design; Tooby & Cosmides, 1992, 2005). The worth of integrating proximate and ultimate explanations is demonstrated by the ensuing novel insights of popular avenues of sport and exercise psychology including (a) the interrelation between motivation and reasoning and their relative influence on exercise behavior, (b) sex differences in sport participation, (c) performance in sport, and (d) group dynamics in sport. Unlike specific fields of psychology, evolutionary psychology is a metatheoretical approach that can foster mutually productive linkages between currently disparate areas within sport and exercise psychology, and with neighboring disciplines.     

What in the world is happening in sport psychology

Abstract

The field of sport psychology is advancing at a rapid rate in many parts of the world, considering the numbers of journals and scholarly articles being produced, the formation of professional societies, and the educational and interventional services being provided to participants in sport and exercise programs. One international direction in sport psychology research is the study of cognitive processes associated with excellence in performance. Cognitive and psychological loads associated with different activities are being determined in order to identify how best to optimize such loads. With a comparison of expert and novice performers, especially under laboratory sport-simulated conditions, researchers are learning more about how individuals possessing different levels of skill manage and respond to information present in the performance situation. Cognitive considerations in the learning and performing of sports skills are receiving more attention by the sport psychology researcher as well as by the consultant.     

Critical reflections on second-generation mindfulness-based interventions

ObjectivesThe purpose of this paper is to provide a critical introduction on Second-Generation Mindfulness-Based Interventions (SG-MBIs) to sport and performance psychology scholars and practitioners.MethodThis essay is written as a commentary on Roychowdhury et al.’s, (2021, this issue) article in this issue. Specifically, I apply theoretical insights from Roychowdhury et al., (2021, this issue) to the practical model of SG-MBIs.ResultsI find that SG-MBIs attempt to respond to ethical concerns with the ways that mindfulness has been commodified, secularized, and universalized through appeals to cultural authenticity.DiscussionWhile acknowledging the cultural contexts from which practices like mindfulness have been taken is important, appeals to cultural authenticity often reproduce fixed and essentializing constructions of culture and are easily coopted by neoliberal multiculturalism.ConclusionAs sport and performance psychology professionals reflect on the next generation of mindfulness-based interventions, it will be important to attend to the contextual flexibility of neoliberalism to universalize and essentialize.     

The Enhancement of Performance Excellence Among Performing Artists

With the maturation of the practice of applied sport psychology has come recognition of the ways in which knowledge of performance excellence can address performance issues among other populations. The present article addresses applications to performing artists. Four issues that may affect performing artists, and that have direct parallels within sport, are performance enhancement and psychological skills training, developmental issues, injury and retirement, and eating disorders. Performing artists' preferences and concerns about consultation are discussed, noting parallels and differences with applications to athletes. Both practical and ethical considerations of developing such a practice are reviewed.     

The Long and Winding Road: An Autobiographic Study of an Elite Athlete Mother’s Journey to Winning Gold

Within sport psychology, researchers have explored elite athlete mothers’ experiences. More work is needed to understand the nuanced psychosocial aspects of their athletic journeys. Studying autobiographical narratives is useful toward understanding the psychosocial nuances of motherhood and athletics in sociocultural context. Within the present study we sought to extend this understanding through studying one elite athlete’s—British runner Jo Pavey—journey as an athlete mother within her autobiography This Mum Runs (26 chapters totaling 253 pages). Thematic narrative analysis of key chapters focusing on pregnancy and motherhood in relation to training and competition allowed for the identification of a central theme—discovery narrative–reconfiguring the performance narrative—along with two subthemes: go with the flow and best of both worlds. The subthemes are used to illustrate the navigation of tensions in relation to an athlete mother identity grounded in family relationships to facilitate training and competition goals, within a discovery narrative. Applied sport psychology recommendations are made using narrative theory in relation to key findings. Recommendations focused on athlete stories and narrative resources as concrete entry points to encourage compatible athlete mother identities and sport career engagement. This study adds to sport psychology work that has used autobiography as theoretical, analytical, and applied resources to expand understanding of marginalized and/or hard to access topics in elite sport. This is the first autobiographic study to focus on elite athlete mother identities, furthering understanding of nuanced identity negotiation and experiences over time.

Lay Summary: Understanding of elite athlete mother's negotiation of identity and athletic career is expanded through studying published/public autobiographical narratives. A discovery narrative grounded in personal growth and family relationships facilitates strategies that facilitate training and competition goals.     

Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its emergence,application and future

ObjectivesThe rapid development of elite sport in Europe and across the world has had far-reaching psychosocial ramifications for those operating within its sphere of influence. Whilst sport psychologists in the latter part of the 20th century largely focused on the cognitive determinates of elite performance, the findings of recent research suggest that sport psychologists in the 21st century will need to better understand the organizational influences on world-class athletes. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, to discuss the emergence, application and future of organizational psychology knowledge in elite performance sport.MethodNarrative review and commentary.Results and conclusionThe review discusses the findings of six lines of inquiry that point to the salience of organizational issues in elite sport: i) factors affecting Olympic performance; ii) organizational stress in athletes, coaches and parents; iii) perceptions of roles within sports teams; iv) organizational success factors in sport and business; v) performance environments in elite sport; and vi) organizational citizenship behavior in sport. The commentary then focuses on the theoretical underpinnings and practical implementation of organizational service delivery in elite sport, and concludes by reflecting on how developments in this area have the potential to inform future practice and research relating to the psychology of elite sport.     

Recognition,Respect and Athletic Excellence

ABSTRACT

Scholars across disciplines recognize sport as an institution perpetuating sexism and bias against women in light of its masculine ideals. However, little philosophical research identifies how a masculine environment impacts women’s possibilities in sport. This paper shows that socially structured masculine ideals of athletic excellence impact recognition of women’s athletic achievements while contributing to contexts endangering respect and self-respect. Exploring athletic disrespect reveals connections to more broadly harmful sport practices that include physical and sexual violence. Thus, the practical concern is that sport’s masculine ideals might undermine women’s pursuit of athletic excellence in more harmful ways than previously recognized.     

Male and Female Athletes' and Nonathletes' Expectations about Sport Psychology Consulting

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore expectations of athletes and nonathletes about sport psychology consulting. Tinsley's (1982) Expectations About Coun-seling-Brief form was revised using sport psychology terms. The revised instrument, Expectations About Sport Psychology Consulting (EASPC) questionnaire, was administered to 111 athletes (64 male and 47 female) and 166 nonathletes (72 male and 94 female) attending an NCAA Division I university. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the data fit the hypothesized 3-factor model (i.e., personal commitment, facilitative conditions, and consultant expertise). A 2 (College Sport Participation) 2 (Gender) MANOVA and follow-up discriminant function analyses revealed that females had higher expectancies of personal commitment than did males whereas males believed that consultants were more directive and more capable of solving problems quickly than did females. No significant differences were obtained between athletes and their peers. The results indicate that the EASPC instrument might be a valuable tool for determining expectations about sport psychology consulting.     

The ecology of physical activity and sport: Merging science and practice

Abstract

A focus on the ecology of physical activity and sport will merge science and practice within the field of sport psychology. To support this contention, this paper identifies shortcomings of prominent theories within sport psychology by grouping them into meta-theoretical categories labeled dispositional-biological, cognitive behavioral, cognitive-phenomenological, and social-comtructionist. The solution to these shortcomings is an ecological meta-theory that definer the field of sport psychology as the study of how individuals encounter their physical activity and sport environments. Analysis and intervention of this targeted subject matter can be at the physiological, interpersonal, interpersonal, community, and/or institutional and public policy level. A meta-theory that defines ecological information within physical activity in sport as the primary subject matter of study and intervention will develop an autonomous field of study and practice.     

Uncertainty and Resourcefulness in Performance Environments: A Theoretical Note

Abstract

The emphasis of this theoretical note focuses on the link between the concepts of uncertainty and resourcefulness in performance contexts such as professional sport and manufacturing industry. Integrative themes from sport, work, and organization psychology are highlighted. Rigid work organization based on job demarcation and inflexible role specification reduces personal control and instils perfunctory attention to work procedures. In contrast, the sociotechnical systems approach provides a framework for examining how localized control of variance in performance output may be developed through the recognition and promotion of tacit knowledge in individuals. Additionally, through consideration of the theory of learned resourcefulness, the self-regulation of goal-directed activities and a repertoire of cognitive-behavioural skills are suggested as important factors influencing productivity and health at the organizational and individual level. Throughout, the interconnection between these diverse theoretical perspectives is discussed.     

Ego depletion,attentional control,and decision making in sport

ObjectivesAthletes differ at staying focused on performance and avoiding distraction. Drawing on the strength model of self-control we investigated whether athletes do not only differ inter-individually in their disposition of staying focused and avoiding distraction but also intra-individually in their situational availability of focused attention.Design/methodIn the present experiment we hypothesized that basketball players (N = 40) who have sufficient self-control resources will perform relatively better on a computer based decision making task under distraction conditions compared to a group who's self-control resources have been depleted in a prior task requiring self-control.ResultsThe results are in line with the strength model of self-control by demonstrating that an athlete's capability to focus attention relies on the situational availability of self-control strength.ConclusionsThe current results indicate that having sufficient self-control strength in interference rich sport settings is likely to be beneficial for decision making.     

Dyadic coping in coach-athlete relationships: A grounded theory

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to make an original contribution to sport psychology literature by offering a substantive grounded theory of dyadic coping in coach-athlete relationships. Specifically, this study aimed to capture the development and manifestation of dyadic coping for coaches and athletes operating in individual sports.DesignUsing constructionist grounded theory methodology as a guide, a theory of dyadic coping was constructed by the authors, 13 coaches, 15 athletes, and five sport and exercise psychology practitioners.MethodTheoretical sampling procedures ensured that data collection was directed by the developing theoretical concepts, rather than a set of predefined criteria. We conducted individual interviews (n = 16) with coaches and athletes, and one 90-min workshop with coaches, athletes, and sport and exercise psychology practitioners. Methodological rigor was enhanced by focusing on credibility, originality, resonance, and usefulness.ResultsThe theory proposes that when coaches and athletes appraise a stressor communicated in their dyad as significant and meaningful, they use dyadic coping to protect themselves and their coach-athlete relationships. This process is moderated by a number of personal (e.g., personality), relationship (e.g., length), and organizational (e.g., leadership behaviors) characteristics.ConclusionThe theory presented here represents a notable shift in thinking away from coping as an individual process and toward coping as an important interpersonal phenomenon. This type of coping can have long-term effects on coaches’ and athletes’ relationship functioning, well-being, and performance.     

Narrative, identity and mental health: How men with serious mental illness re-story their lives through sport and exercise

ObjectivesIt has been suggested that mental illness threatens identity and sense of self when one's personal story is displaced by dominant illness narratives focussing on deficit and dysfunction. One role of therapy, therefore, is to allow individuals to re-story their life in a more positive way which facilitates the reconstruction of a meaningful identity and sense of self. This research explores the ways in which involvement in sport and exercise may play a part in this process.DesignQualitative analysis of narrative.MethodWe used an interpretive approach which included semi-structured interviews and participant observation with 11 men with serious mental illness to gather stories of participants’ sport and exercise experiences. We conducted an analysis of narrative to explore the more general narrative types which were evident in participants’ accounts.FindingsWe identified three narrative types underlying participants’ talk about sport and exercise: (a) an action narrative about “going places and doing stuff”; (b) an achievement narrative about accomplishment through effort, skill or courage; (c) a relationship narrative of shared experiences to talk about combined with opportunities to talk about those experiences. We note that these narrative types differ significantly from—and may be considered alternatives to—dominant illness narratives.ConclusionThis study provides an alternative perspective on how sport and exercise can help men with serious mental illness by providing the narrative resources which enabled participants to re-story aspects of their lives through creating and sharing personal stories through which they rebuilt or maintained a positive sense of self and identity.     

When Sport psychology consultants and graduate students are impaired: Ethical and legal issues in training and supervision

Abstract

Impaired sport psychology consultants, that is, professionals and graduate students whose behavior, inadequate training, personal situations, or psychopathology are having a negative influence on the delivery of services, have the potential to do harm to athlete-clients, damage their own professional standing, and bring disrepute to the field. The applied sport psychology literature is replete with guidelines and suggestions for referring athletes for counseling or psychotherapy when appropriate (e.g., Heyman & Andersen, 1998), but the ethical, legal, and procedural problems associated with sport psychology consultants whose training or mental conditions suggest the need for remediation, rehabilitation, or psychotherapy, and possible removal from seeing clients, has not been addressed. We describe a variety of situations where student and professional functioning might be impaired, discuss the possible ramifications (legal, ethical) of impairment, and provide suggestions for ways to proceed when sport psychology consultants are in psychological difficulty.     

“Nothing was lost sailing-wise and lots is gained on a personal level”: Practitioners’ behaviors and athletes’ perceptions of working in online environments

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of expert practitioners and their British sailing team athletes concerning effective, athlete-centered online delivery during a period of COVID-19 restrictions between March and June 2020. In particular, we explored how psychosocial behaviors of practitioners and inherent attributes of online environments influenced the overall wellbeing of the athletes.MethodsUsing appreciative inquiry (AI), which adopts a social constructionist viewpoint, we interviewed nine expert practitioners, which included technical and strength and conditioning coaches, physiologists, and physiotherapists, and 18 elite athletes.ResultsOur results highlight that when delivering sessions online, practitioners expressed psychosocial behaviors that helped build effective relationships, with expression of care and empathy developing closeness, active participation exhibiting commitment, and psychosocial behaviors such as promoting a holistic mindset supporting an athlete-centered approach. Key to these positive outcomes was the connection that practitioners developed with their athletes in these online sessions. Our results suggest that the online environment provide opportunities for practitioners and athletes to reveal part of their personalities and identities that go beyond focusing on performance due to the change in the contextual setting (i.e., restrictions called for a ‘people first’ approach).ConclusionThe findings offer a novel contribution to the literature in highlighting how online environments provide the opportunity to deliver athlete-centered sessions.     

Living,resisting, and playing the part of athlete: Narrative tensions in elite sport

ObjectivesTo explore: (i) How elite and professional sport culture might steer individuals towards particular stories, identities, and actions; (ii) How athletes navigate or respond to these cultural pressures.DesignCross-sectional qualitative methodology.MethodNarrative interviews and focus groups with 21 elite and professional athletes followed by a narrative analysis of structure and form.ResultsAthletes demonstrated one of three processes. Individuals who live the part of athlete story their life and act in ways that conform to a culturally dominant performance narrative. Here, identity is foreclosed, relationships sacrificed in the pursuit of success, and long-term wellbeing threatened. Over time, alternative narrative types may provoke moral reflection on their story and actions. Individuals who resist the part of athlete sustain a life story and identity that deviates from the performance narrative, drawing on alternative narrative types. Their resistance is typically overt as they publicly demonstrate actions that align with their multidimensional story. Individuals who play the part of athlete modify their story and actions depending on sociocultural context. These individuals covertly maintain a multidimensional life story, but silence this story when powerful others require performance stories.ConclusionsAlthough some elite/professional athletes' life stories revolve around performance outcomes, this is not a prerequisite for excellence. Other athletes achieve excellence while sustaining a multidimensional life story and identity. To do so, they navigate a culture that expects a performance focus, through overt resistance or covertly manipulating their public stories and actions.     

Guidelines for Counsellors Working with People of African Ancestry in a Sport Context

The objective this article is to describe five practice guidelines for counsellors working with people of African ancestry in a sport context. The practice guidelines pertain to counsellor training, counsellor perspectives, counsellor services, counsellor ethics and counsellor research. These practice guidelines can assist counsellors working with people of African ancestry in a sport context to focus on both personal development through sport and performance enhancement in sport. This will enable athletes not just to view sport in terms of their win-lose record, but to also strive for excellence in sport by becoming better people. In becoming better people athletes can contribute to building up Africa and her people.     

Cognitive psychology in sport: Progress and prospects

ProblemThere has been a recent upsurge of research interest in cognitive sport psychology or the scientific study of mental processes (e.g., mental imagery) in athletes. Despite this interest, an important question has been neglected. Specifically, is research on cognitive processes in athletes influential outside sport psychology, in the “parent” field of cognitive psychology or in the newer discipline of cognitive neuroscience?ObjectivesThe purpose of this paper is to explore the theoretical significance of research on expertise, attention and mental imagery in athletes from the perspective of cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience.MethodFollowing analysis of recent paradigm shifts in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience, a narrative review is provided of key studies on expertise, attention and mental imagery in athletes.Results and conclusionsThis paper shows that cognitive sport psychology has contributed significantly to theoretical understanding of certain mental processes studied in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. It also shows that neuroscientific research on motor imagery can benefit from increased collaboration with cognitive sport psychology. Overall, I conclude that the domain of sport offers cognitive researchers a rich and dynamic natural laboratory in which to study how the mind works.     

Putting the accreditation cart before the aaasp horse: A reply to silva,conroy and zizzi

Abstract

While Silva et al. (1999) must be congratulated for leading a discussion of accreditation of graduate programs in applied sport psychology, the authors appear to have “put the cart before the horse.” They have adopted an extreme one-sided position that suggests that accreditation of programs is the only viable solution for some of the training and employment problems that currently exist in the applied sport psychology profession. This response questions some of their assumptions and conclusions and offers several alternative solutions to these problems in a more balanced analysis of the current situation. It is hoped that these articles will stimulate further discussion at AAASP meetings and among practicing professionals.