Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its emergence,application and future

ObjectivesThe rapid development of elite sport in Europe and across the world has had far-reaching psychosocial ramifications for those operating within its sphere of influence. Whilst sport psychologists in the latter part of the 20th century largely focused on the cognitive determinates of elite performance, the findings of recent research suggest that sport psychologists in the 21st century will need to better understand the organizational influences on world-class athletes. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, to discuss the emergence, application and future of organizational psychology knowledge in elite performance sport.MethodNarrative review and commentary.Results and conclusionThe review discusses the findings of six lines of inquiry that point to the salience of organizational issues in elite sport: i) factors affecting Olympic performance; ii) organizational stress in athletes, coaches and parents; iii) perceptions of roles within sports teams; iv) organizational success factors in sport and business; v) performance environments in elite sport; and vi) organizational citizenship behavior in sport. The commentary then focuses on the theoretical underpinnings and practical implementation of organizational service delivery in elite sport, and concludes by reflecting on how developments in this area have the potential to inform future practice and research relating to the psychology of elite sport.     

The Elite Sport and Christianity Debate: Shifting Focus from Normative Values to the Conscious Disregard for Health

Scholars and theologians continue to debate whether or not God’s intended purpose of elite sport violates the creational normativity for elite sport. However, while it is important to be aware of the contradictions between elite sport and Christianity, there is a need for more deep-seated discussions about emotions and health problems in elite sport and why so many Christian athletes continue to train for their sport at the expense of their health. This paper summaries the present debate regarding elite sport and Christianity and then shifts the reader to an exploration of the normalization of emotion, and the consequence of emotional suppression on athletes health. In doing so, the author presents the disregard of health problems as a more concrete measure of how far athletes should push themselves in elite sport. The author makes recommendations for emotion education and suggests directions for future research and practice.     

An Exploration of the Experiences of Elite Youth Footballers: The Impact of Organizational Culture

The present study explored how the organizational cultural experiences of elite youth footballers shaped their identity development and behavior. The first author occupied the position of sport psychology practitioner-researcher within 1 professional football club over 3 years. Traditional ethnographic research methods were employed, including observations, field notes, reflections, and informal interviews. A cultural sport psychology perspective on identity as a social construction and research on the cultural characteristics of professional football were used as frameworks to make sense of the data. Despite the introduction of the Elite Player Performance Plan in 2012, the traditional masculine culture of professional football dominated the studied club. Creative nonfiction vignettes revealed that youth players were encouraged to develop their self-stories focused on a single-minded dedication to professional football. The limited identity-related resources offered at both club and cultural level are detrimental for players in terms of their well-being and long-term psychological development. From the results of this study, we suggest that future sports psychology practice within professional football may best be delivered at an organizational level. However, for sport psychologists to be effective in this role, they must develop an understanding of the subcultural features and characteristics of the organization. In line with this, there would be great value in introducing a focus on organizational culture within sport psychology professional training and education routes.

Lay Summary: This paper explores the impact of the professional football culture on the psychological development of elite youth footballers. From the findings we suggest that sport psychology should be delivered at an organisational level.     

On being a living contradiction: the struggle of an elite intercollegiate Christian coach

While some research has been conducted on the manner in which Christian athletes utilize their faith to cope with the dominant culture of winning, there appears to be a relative paucity of investigation on the manner in which elite coaches function in this environment. The purpose of this study was to describe an elite intercollegiate coach’s response to the dominant culture of sport as it related to his spiritual life. We attempted to examine the thought processes and behaviors of an individual held in high esteem by his peers, and report his solutions to some of the dilemmas reported in the previous work by S. J. Hoffman and C. L. Stevenson. This elite intercollegiate coach was extremely committed to his relationship with Christ, but he was likewise heavily involved with the dominant culture of sport.     

“You have to be mental to jump off a board any way”: Elite divers' conceptualizations and perceptions of mental health

ObjectivesMental health research in elite sport focuses predominantly on mental illness prevalence rates and help-seeking behaviours. Diving has been identified as a sport that generates particular challenges for maintaining mental health, yet has received scant attention from researchers. Therefore, purpose this paper explores what mental health and mental health related behaviours mean for a group of young, elite athletes as conditioned by their peculiar social context as elite athletes.MethodSemi-structured interviews were conducted with purposely sampled eight elite divers aged between 14 and 24 years with between 5 and 16 years of diving experience who have competed in international level diving competitions including Olympic, Common Wealth and World Cup competitions. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using inductive thematic analysis.ResultsAnalysis identified mental health literacy, experiences of mental health, risk factors, and opportunities for support as themes. Mental health generated negative connotations for participants attributable to knowledge development occurring through personal and vicarious experience of mental illness. Limited knowledge of symptoms of mental illnesses was evident. Participants identified a range of risk-factors inherent in their sport performance and culture revealing a performative and gendered dimension to mental health.ConclusionsOur results indicate the need to recognize the performative nature of mental health for elite divers and therefore social and cultural influences alongside biophysical. Greater efforts need to be made to help improve the overall mental health literacy of elite divers so they may be able to seek the support and treatment they need.     

Investigating Elite End-of-Athletic-Career Transition: A Systematic Review

This article presents a systematic review of the literature investigating factors that contribute to a successful end-of-career transition among elite athletes. The systematic review included 10 studies that focused on elite athlete retirement that in part measured positive outcomes, which fall under the flourishing construct. Results indicated that although there has been an abundance of research examining multiple effects of transition out of sport among elite athletes, there appears to be no current literature explicitly examining flourishing within this elite population. The results of the review have practical implications for sport psychology practitioners who are aiming to facilitate a successful transition for elite athletes through their end-of-athletic-career transition. The findings from the systematic review are discussed, and the article provides recommendations for future research and for current applied practice.     

Defining and characterizing team resilience in elite sport

ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were to develop a definition of team resilience and to identify the resilient characteristics of elite sport teams.Design and methodFocus groups consisting of a total of 31 participants were conducted with five elite teams from a range of sports. An interpretive thematic analysis using inductive and deductive reasoning was employed to analyze the data.Results and conclusionsTeam resilience was defined as a dynamic, psychosocial process which protects a group of individuals from the potential negative effect of the stressors they collectively encounter. It comprises of processes whereby team members use their individual and combined resources to positively adapt when experiencing adversity. Findings revealed four main resilient characteristics of elite sport teams: group structure, mastery approaches, social capital, and collective efficacy. This study extends resilience research in sport psychology by providing greater conceptual clarity of resilience at a team level. The implications of the findings for those conducting research in this area and for those consulting with elite sport teams are discussed.     

Examining the Efficacy of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) on Irrational Beliefs and Anxiety in Elite Youth Cricketers

The use of rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) in sport psychology has received scant research attention. Therefore, this study examines the efficacy of REBT (comprising three counselling sessions and two homework assignments) in decreasing irrational beliefs and cognitive-anxiety in four elite youth cricketers using a single-case multiple-baseline across-participants design. Visual and statistical analyses indicated that REBT reduced irrational beliefs and cognitive-anxiety in all participants. The applied issues surrounding the use of REBT in a youth sport context are discussed, along with guidance for its future use in sport psychology research.     

An exploration of doping-related perceptions and knowledge of disabled elite athletes in the UK and Austria

IntroductionCompared to anti-doping research in Olympic sport, the issue of doping is under-researched and poorly understood in Paralympic sport. However, with the growth of the Paralympic Games and the increased number of disabled elite athletes, the number of doping controls and doping cases has also increased. Therefore, there is a need to address the dearth of evidence in disabled sport contexts and develop an understanding of disabled elite athletes' perceptions, reasons and knowledge related to doping to ensure appropriate policy and programmes are implemented.MethodSixteen disabled elite athletes from Austria (n = 9) and the UK (n = 7) participated in semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed using inductive reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019a).FindingsFour themes were generated during the analysis. The first showed that athletes perceive doping to be a well-known and wide-spread issue in Paralympic sport. The second theme illustrated that disabled elite athletes are exposed to extreme pressure (e.g., to earn money), which they state poses a risk for using prohibited methods and/or substances. Thirdly, athletes suggested that there are several ways to cheat if someone would like to find ‘loopholes’ (e.g., misuse of Therapeutic Use Exemptions) in the current anti-doping system, which they reported only works partially. Lastly, although it is not officially named as an anti-doping rule violation, athletes proposed cheating on classification as a form of doping – and the greatest threat to the integrity of disabled sport.ConclusionsFor the first time, the current study shows that doping in the context of disabled elite sport likely stems from only a few main factors; a perception of pressure and faults in the anti-doping system. To address these risks, prize money could be distributed more broadly, the TUE process and classification system should be more closely scrutinised, and targeted anti-doping education that addresses the main risk factors in disabled elite sport should be provided for all athletes and their support team worldwide.     

Defining and characterizing organizational resilience in elite sport

ObjectivesOrganizational resilience has been investigated in numerous performance contexts outside of sport, with substantial conceptual and operational variance. Given the growing interest in organizational environments in sport, the purpose of the study was to construct a definition of organizational resilience and identify resilient characteristics of elite sport organizations.DesignUsing the Delphi method, 62 expert panelists working in or with elite sport organizations (n = 45) or having academic experience of resilience in various contexts (n = 17), responded to four online iterative surveys over seven months, yielding both quantitative and qualitative data through item responses and accompanying comments. A reflexive thematic analysis of the integrated data was conducted from a critical realist standpoint.ResultsOrganizational resilience was defined as “the dynamic capability of an organization to successfully deal with significant change. It emerges from multi-level (employee, team, and organizational) interacting characteristics and processes which enable an organization to prepare for, adapt to, and learn from significant change”. The five resilient characteristics identified from the analysis were structural clarity, flexible improvement, shared understanding, reciprocal commitment, and operational awareness.ConclusionsBy proposing a definition of organizational resilience which is appropriate to and endorsed by those in elite sport organizations, and identifying resilient characteristics of elite sport organizations, this study provides an important foundation for future research and practice endeavors in this area.     

A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

This paper is an investigation of performance leadership and management in elite sport. Thirteen national performance directors of Olympic sports were interviewed with regard to best practice. Four main areas were identified: vision, operations, people, and culture. The main vision issues were vision development, influences on the vision, and sharing the vision. The main operations issues were financial management, strategic competition and training planning, athlete selection for competition, and upholding rules and regulations. The main people issues were staff management, lines of communication, and feedback mechanisms. The main culture issues were establishing role awareness, and organizational and team atmosphere.     

Using Ethnography in Applied Sport Psychology

The acceptance of qualitative research in applied sport psychology is growing steadily, yet there are continued calls for greater methodological diversity in this research. To this end, we offer ethnography to extend and enhance our understanding of applied sport psychology. Ethnography is aimed toward understanding the culture of a particular group from the perspective of the group members. The group culture, then, will lend insight into the behaviors, values, emotions, and mental states of group members. Ethnographers employ multiple methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of the social environment and perceptions of the members of the social group. In this paper, we discuss the epistemological and methodological foundations of ethnography. Then, using research examples related to applied sport psychology, we describe processes involved ethnographic research. Finally, we explore the issues of representation and legitimacy in ethnography.     

Retirement from sport and the loss of athletic identity

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine how a sample of elite athletes coped with distressful reactions to retirement from sport. As part of a larger research project, 15 former elite athletes were identified as having experienced severe emotional difficulties upon athletic career termination. Through use of a micronarrative methodology, it was determined that account making can be a significant moderator of distress during the career transition process. In addition, the quality of the account making was found to be related to present affect and overall success in coping with athletic retirement. Finally, changes in athletic identity were found to be significant determinants of adjustment for athletes upon career termination. Suggestions are presented for future research on treatment strategies for distressful reactions to retirement from sport.     

Abandoning The Performance Narrative: Two Women's Stories of Transition from Professional Sport

Despite its potential to illuminate psychological processes within socio-cultural contexts, examples of narrative research are rare in sport psychology. In this study, we employed an analysis of narrative to explore two women's stories of living in, and withdrawing from, professional tournament golf gathered through life history interviews conducted over 6 years. Our findings suggest that immersion in elite sport culture shaped these women's identities around performance values of single-minded dedication to sport and prioritization of winning above all other areas of life. When the performance narrative ceased to “fit” their changing lives, both women, having no alternative narrative to guide their personal life stories, experienced narrative wreckage and considerable personal trauma. They required asylum—a place of refuge where performance values were no longer paramount—to story their lives around a relational narrative that reinstated a coherent identity while providing meaning and worth to life after golf.     

Parents’ Reflections on their Child's Experiences of Emotionally Abusive Coaching Practices

The purpose of this study was to explore parents’ reflections on their child's experiences of emotionally abusive coaching practices. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 parents of retired elite athletes, and data were coded using open, axial, and selective coding techniques. Parents’ reflections indicated a process of accepting disconcerting coaching practices across their child's athletic career. Findings are interpreted to suggest that parents are socialized into the culture of elite sport and can become silent bystanders to their children's experiences of emotional abuse. Implications for athlete protection are discussed.     

Perceptions of Engaging With a Super-Strengths Approach in Elite Sport

Strengths-based approaches (underpinned by positive psychology) are scarcely documented in sport. This study explored perceptions of a strengths-based approach (termed super-strengths) on psychological characteristics and performance in elite sport. Semistructured interviews were conducted with athletes (N = 12) who had previous experience of working with a sport psychology practitioner on super-strengths. Thematic analysis of the data indicated that super-strengths had a positive influence on athletes’ mind-set, confidence (e.g., self-belief), clarity of purpose (e.g., goal direction), drive, coping ability, and performance. Findings highlight the potential benefits of adopting strengths-based approaches in sport, and recommendations for future research are provided.     

Understanding and building clean(er) sport together: Community-based participatory research with elite athletes and anti-doping organisations from five European countries

BackgroundIn sport the narrative is changing from anti-doping to pro-clean sport. Yet, our understanding of what ‘clean sport’ means to athletes is notably absent from the literature.ObjectivesWorking together with elite athletes and National Anti-Doping Organisations (NADOs), this study explored the meaning and importance of ‘clean sport’ and ‘clean athlete identity’.DesignCommunity-based participatory research design was employed to explore (a) how elite athletes define clean sport and being a clean athlete; (b) the hopes and challenges associated with clean sport and being a clean athlete; and (c) what can be done in anti-doping to elicit clean sport.MethodsFive elite athletes in five European countries (Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Slovenia and United Kingdom) were recruited as co-researchers by their respective NADOs, trained for their role as co-researchers and individually interviewed. Seventy-seven elite athletes were then purposefully recruited for 12 athlete-led national focus groups. Finally, the five athlete co-researchers and five athlete participants took part in one 2.5-h long international focus group.ResultsReflexive thematic analysis resulted in generating four overarching themes: ‘clean is being true to the self’, ‘clean performance enhancement has multiple meanings’, ‘clean is not a solo act’ and ‘the problems and solutions are systemic’. Collectively, the themes showed that the clean athlete identity is generally rooted in upbringing, early experiences and love of sport; and characterised by continued, intrinsically motivated commitment to fundamental values and morals acquired in childhood. In contrast, the concept of clean performance-enhancement is highly idiosyncratic and flexible. Elite athletes value anti-doping efforts but their experiences of disparity and unfairness in doping control undermine their trust in anti-doping.ConclusionClean athlete identity is a social endeavour and artefact, which needs to be reflected in and developed through evidence-informed anti-doping interventions. Raising athletes' voices via collaboration and participatory research can be an enriching experience for athletes and researchers alike, and a worthwhile endeavour for sport organisations with responsibility for anti-doping. To make anti-doping education personally relevant, the richness of individual interpretation of ‘clean’ for the self (i.e., clean athlete identity) and performance-enhancement must be acknowledged, respected and cultivated.     

A Qualitative Exploration of Thriving in Elite Sport

Athletes are often described as thriving in sport; however, extant research on this construct in sport has been divergent. This study aimed to provide the first dedicated exploration of thriving in elite sport performers by considering its characteristics, outcomes, and facilitators. Semistructured interviews (n = 15) were conducted with athletes, coaches, and sport psychology practitioners and were analyzed using applied thematic analysis. Thriving was perceived to comprise a sustained high-level of performance and dimensions of well-being. Furthermore, predominantly positive outcomes of thriving were described, and participants identified a network of personal and contextual enablers that could facilitate thriving.     

Training programme designs in professional team sport: An ecological dynamics exemplar

Ecological dynamics is a contemporary theory of skill acquisition, advocating the mutuality of the performer-environment system, with clear implications for the design of innovative training environments in elite sport. It contends that performance behaviours emerge, and are adapted, by athletes satisfying a confluence of constraints impacting on their structural and functional capacities, the physics of a performance environment and the intended task goals. This framework implicates contemporary models of coaching, training design and sport science support, to stimulate continuous interactions between an individual and performance environment, predicated on representative learning designs (RLD). While theoretical principles of RLD in ecological dynamics are tangible, their practical application in elite and high level (team) sports need verification. Here, we exemplify how data sampled from a high-performance team sport setting could underpin innovative methodologies to support practitioners in designing representative training activities. We highlight how the use of principles grounded within ecological dynamics, along with data from performance analytics, could suggest contemporary models of coaching and preparation for performance in elite sport.