The Olympic Games as a career change-event: Israeli athletes' and coaches' perceptions of London 2012

ObjectivesThis study used the Scheme of Change for Sport Psychology Practice (SCSPP; Samuel & Tenenbaum, 2011a) to examine athletes' and coaches' personal characteristics, perceptions of, coping with, and perceived outcome of the London 2012 Olympic Games (OGs). We also contrasted several sub-groups (e.g., Olympic and Paralympic athletes) in certain variables, and examined the decision-making and support systems involved in the OGs change process.Design and methodsA cross-sectional and retrospective design was used. Israeli Olympic and Paralympic athletes and coaches (N = 61) completed measures of change-event experiences (Samuel & Tenenbaum, 2011b) and athletic/coaching identity (AI/CI; Brewer & Cornelius, 2001) two years after the London 2012 OGs.ResultsOlympic athletes trained more, and had higher motivation and AI than Paralympic athletes. The OGs were perceived as a significant and positive change-event in the participants' careers. AI/CI was associated with the perceived significance of the OGs. At the time of Olympic qualification, the participants tended either to ignore this change-event or cope with it independently. Most participants reported making a decision to change related to adjustment and coping. Professional support was mainly available prior to and during the OGs. During this experience the participants did not consider using sport psychology services, but retrospectively, valued the usefulness of this support. Athletes' motivation after the OGs was predicted from their satisfaction of coping, and their perceived outcome of this change-event was predicted from their satisfaction of competition results.ConclusionsPsychological support must be provided as part of the Olympic cycle, especially in promoting a decision to change. Maintaining realistic expectations may be critical for facilitating a positive perception of this change-event.     

Athletes' perceptions of multilevel changes related to competing at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games

ObjectivesTaking into account the need for applied research on the most effective ways to prepare Olympians psychologically, the first purpose of this study was to gain more insight into the changes perceived by four athletes in view of their participation in the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. The second purpose of this study was to illustrate how using a holistic and dynamic approach to the identification of the perceptions of these athletes' Olympic experiences can provide information relevant for the provision of individual ASP support to these athletes.DesignUsing a prospective design athletes' perceptions of changes were gathered prior, during as well as after the Olympic Games.MethodsA combination of interview (pre and post Olympic Games) and self-reporting (during Olympic Games) was used to describe athletes' perceptions of changes occurring at athletic, psychological, psychosocial, academic/vocational level.ResultsResults confirmed in first instance athletes' perceptions of the multifaceted nature of their Olympic experience. In second instance, the use of a dynamic and holistic perspective allowed to identify that participants perceived (a) during the phase prior to the Olympic Games 14 changes at all four levels, (b) during the Olympic Games eight changes at three levels, and (c) during the phase after returning from the Olympic Games 11 changes having occurred at four levels.ConclusionsThis study showed the usefulness of using a dynamic and holistic perspective not only in order to identify athletes' perceptions of their Olympic experiences, but also to enhance ASP practitioners' knowledge on the needs for a holistic and dynamic ASP-support provision. In this way, the effectiveness and efficiency of ASP practitioners working with athletes preparing for, or competing at the Olympic Games could be enhanced.     

Longitudinal analysis of stressors,stress, coping and coping effectiveness in elite esports athletes

ObjectiveThe current study aimed to longitudinally examine the stressors, stress appraisal, coping, and coping effectiveness experienced by elite esports athletes.DesignSix elite male League of Legends (LoL) athletes, competing in the Oceanic Challenger Series (OCS), completed diaries over the 2020 competitive season (87 days).MethodAthletes completed weekly diaries after three events: solo training, team training, and competitive matches. Each diary collected data on the stressors experienced, stressor intensity and threat/challenge perception (appraisal), coping strategies used, and perceived coping effectiveness.ResultsGeneral performance, outcome, critical moment performance, and teammate mistakes accounted for 55% of the stressors reported. More stressors were reported in competitive diaries than in training diaries. Competitive stressors were rated as being more intense than training stressors. There were no differences in overall challenge and threat perception, but performance stressors were more likely to be perceived as a challenge, and teammate stressors were more likely to be perceived as a threat. Problem-focused coping (PFC) was the most frequently employed coping strategy. PFC and emotion-focused coping (EFC) strategies were perceived as more effective at reducing stress than avoidance coping (AC).ConclusionsElite LoL athletes experienced a small number of reoccurring stressors over an 87-day competitive period. Athletes reported more stressors around competitive matches and perceived competitive stressors as more intense than team and solo training stressors. Similarly to traditional sports athletes, PFC strategies were the most frequently employed and, PFC and EFC were rated as being more effective than AC.     

Coping with the Media at the Vancouver Winter Olympics: “We All Make a Living Out of This”

The purpose of this study was to examine the journalist-athlete relationship at a major competitive event to better understand how the media may be perceived as a source of strain and how elite athletes cope with the media demands. Ten participants were interviewed after the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games. Intrusive questioning may negatively affect and influence the athlete's preparation for events. The use of coping strategies to deal with the media demands and reporting becomes important. In addition, the team support personnel should employ mastery motivational strategies to keep the athlete task involved.     

The ecological validity of the autonomic-subjective response dissociation in repressive coping

Background and Objectives: Repressive coping has been associated with elevated cardiovascular reactivity and diminished self-reported negative affect (so-called autonomic-subjective response dissociation, ASRD) in response to laboratory stressors. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the ecological validity of this response pattern. Design: An ambulatory assessment strategy was applied in order to analyze associations between ASRD and repressive coping throughout a day. Methods: A sample of 114 individuals was recruited. Heart rate was recorded via ECG and subjective reports of negative affect as well as the experience of demand and control (as indicators of stress) and situational characteristics were assessed several times a day via mobile electronic devices. Results: Repressive coping relative to other coping dispositions was accompanied by elevated ASRD during stressful episodes in daily life, thus supporting previous laboratory research. Conclusions: The findings suggest that repressive coping is associated with a discrepancy between subjective reports of negative affect and autonomic responding to stressful encounters in everyday life, which might impact health.     

List of Reviewers

ABSTRACT

Anxious individuals report disproportionately negative expectations concerning the future, termed the negative expectancy bias. In contrast, ageing is associated with an inflated expectancy for positive future events. A recent study [Steinman, S. A., Smyth, F. L., Bucks, R. S., MacLeod, C., &; Teachman, B. A. (2013). Anxiety-linked expectancy bias across the adult lifespan. Cognition and Emotion, 27, 345–355. doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.711743] found using an interpretation bias task, a negative expectancy bias in young adults and positive expectancy bias in older adults with high trait anxiety. Extending this, the current study examined expectancy bias for positive, negative and ambiguously emotionally toned information in younger and older adults with clinical levels of depression and anxiety to community control groups, thus allowing examination of both disorder status and age on biases. Clinical participants reported a pervasive tendency to expect negative events relative to positive regardless of whether the current scenarios were positive, negative or ambiguous. Older adults showed greater expectancy for future positive scenarios when the initial scenario was negative or ambiguous. Age moderated the negative expectancy bias shown by clinical participants for ambiguous scenarios. Clinical disorders in older adults attenuated the positive expectancy bias that was otherwise strong in community participants. These findings provide further evidence for age differences in processing of emotionally toned information, with older adults showing a greater expectancy for positive future events.     

The influence of the Chinese sport system and Chinese cultural characteristics on Olympic sport psychology services

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of sociocultural factors on Chinese Olympic sport psychology services.Design and methodsFifteen sport psychology consultants (SPCs), who served Chinese national teams for the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, participated in this study after the Olympics. Semi-structured interviews were conducted within three months of the closing of the Olympics, followed by a hybrid approach to inductive and deductive thematic analyses.ResultsTwo general dimensions of sociocultural influence on Chinese Olympic sport psychology services were identified: (a) the Whole-Nation System and (b) Chinese cultural characteristics. They consisted of eight higher order themes, which comprised 26 lower order themes. This study revealed that Chinese sport psychology services were enhanced by recognizing the features of the Whole-Nation System (e.g., resource centralization and top-down management) and the successful blending of these features with Chinese cultural characteristics (e.g., holistic thinking style, keeping face and interpersonal order) into the psychological service.ConclusionsSociocultural factors had a marked influence on Chinese Olympic sport psychology services, which enabled Chinese SPCs to provide a culturally competent service (e.g., prioritizing collective interests, respecting the authority of administrative officials and coaches, and keeping face with others) for the Beijing Olympic Games.     

和谐精神:人文奥运的基本精神

在"更快、更高、更强"的奥运主旋律中,内涵着厚重的人文精神。这种人文精神又可以归结为以心和、人和、天和为特征和指向的"和谐精神"。"人文奥运"是2008年北京奥运会三大理念中的核心和灵魂,而人文奥运的灵魂就是和谐精神。和谐、合力、和衷共济、和而不同的"和谐精神"是人文奥运的基本精神,和谐是奥林匹克与中华文明的最佳结合点。     

Relations between plasma oxytocin,depressive symptoms and coping strategies in response to a stressor: the impact of social support

Background: Social support can serve as a protective factor against the negative impacts of stressors and may thereby promote well-being. As well, exogenous administration of oxytocin has been tied to diminished stress responses and might also enhance the effects of social support.

Methods/Results: In the current study, conducted among female undergraduate students (N?=?67), higher depressive symptoms were related to lower endorsements of problem-focused coping in response to a psychosocial stressor comprising the Trier Social Stress test (TSST). However, the relation between depressive symptoms and problem-focused coping was absent among participants who had a close female friend present serving as social support prior to the stressor experience. Additionally, endogenous plasma oxytocin levels were related to certain coping strategies being favored (e.g., problem-solving, humor, cognitive distraction, self-blame and support seeking) in response to the psychosocial stressor. However, the strength of these relations varied as a function of whether individuals had social support present or not.

Conclusion: These findings confirm the positive impact of social support in attenuating the relation between depressive symptoms and specific coping methods. The results of this study are consistent with view that oxytocin levels are accompanied by particular stress responses, possibly through the promotion of coping methods endorsed.     

Achievement goal orientations and the use of coping strategies among Winter Olympians

Objectives: To examine the relationship between task and ego orientations and the use of stress-coping strategies among athletes participating in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games. We expected that athletes who were high on task and low on ego orientation would employ more problem-solving strategies than athletes with other ego and task profiles. We also expected that athletes high in ego and low in task orientation would employ more emotion-focused strategies than other athletes with other ego and task profiles. Gender differences were also investigated.Design: Cross-sectional, retrospective. Data were collected immediately after the closing of the Olympic Games.Methods: Norwegian athletes (N=69, 50 males and 20 females, mean age=25.2 years) participated in the study. Goal orientations and coping strategies were assessed using questionnaires.Results: After a median split on the task and the ego orientation scales to determine the athletes who were high/low, high/high, low/high or low/low in task and ego orientation respectively, 54 athletes remained in the final analysis. Several separate univariate 2×2 analyses of variance were conducted. High task/low ego orientation was related to the use of active coping and social emotional support, while low task/high ego orientation was related to the use of positive redefinition and growth strategies. High ego orientation was associated with less use of active coping and planning strategies among female athletes, but not among male athletes. Furthermore, high ego orientation in female athletes was related to the use of denial as a coping strategy.Conclusions: The relative strength of high and/or low task and ego orientation has an impact on elite athletes' use of coping strategies in competition. Being high in ego orientation seems to be more influential among female than male elite athletes in their use of coping strategies.     

Validity of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire in sports and its links with performance satisfaction

ObjectiveThis research project consisted of two studies aimed at validating the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue) in a sports sample.DesignStudy 1 used a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to investigate if the original 4-factor structure of the TEIQue could be replicated in a sample of athletes. In addition, we explored the relationship between trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) and the demographic variables age, sex, type of sport (individual vs. team), expertise, and years of training. Study 2 used a path analysis approach to explore if trait EI is related to performance satisfaction through stress appraisal and coping behaviors.MethodIn Study 1, 973 athletes completed the TEIQue and a demographic questionnaire. In Study 2, 291 athletes completed the TEIQue. Moreover, with a recent competition in mind, they completed the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sports, as well as items on perceived intensity of stress, perceived controllability of stress, challenge and threat appraisals, coping effectiveness, and performance satisfaction.ResultsStudy 1 showed with a CFA that the original 4-factor structure of the TEIQue could be replicated in a sports sample. Of the demographic variables, only age showed a significant positive relationship with trait EI. Study 2 showed that trait EI was related to performance satisfaction through stress appraisal and coping variables.ConclusionsThis research showed that the TEIQue can be used with athletes and that trait EI is useful for understanding certain aspects of sports performance satisfaction.     

Spécificité des stratégies de coping des patients en rémission de la maladie de Crohn : une étude qualitative

IntroductionCrohn's disease (CD), a chronic inflammatory bowel disease, has strong psychological and social repercussions related to the specificity of the symptomatology. To better understand how patients cope with the disease, coping strategies have been studied but without taking into account the specificity of the CD experience.ObjectiveOur objective is to identify the perceived coping strategies used by patients in relation to their illness experience.MethodUsing a qualitative approach, semi-structured interviews and thematic content analysis with 33 CD patients in remission were conducted.ResultsOur results highlight that some of the coping strategies used are not taken into account by the coping scales frequently used in the literature. Indeed, the illness experience appears to be fundamental in the establishment of new strategies based on the experiential knowledge patients use to reduce the stress induced by a potential relapse. Moreover, coping strategies based on positive emotions are also implemented, and they enable patients to make sense of the disease.ConclusionThe coping strategies, i.e., “experiential knowledge” and “positive emotions”, may shed more light on the complexity of the illness experience of CD patients and allow us to make recommendations concerning the psychological support of patients.     

‘Believe in Yourself,Channel Energy,and Play Your Trumps’: Olympic preparation in complex coordination sports

ObjectivesThis paper is aimed at (a) analysing the psychological context of complex coordination sports (CCSs) and specific contextual factors related to Olympic Games, (b) sharing the authors' experiences in Olympic preparation of athletes in diving, figure skating, and artistic and rhythmic gymnastics with an emphasis on typical working issues and strategies; and (c) summarizing the authors' reflections on the role of the national sport system and cultural contexts in Olympic preparation and major lessons learnt in working with Olympic athletes.Design and MethodAnalysing and structuring the authors' professional experiences in working with Olympic athletes in CCSs based on the scientist-practitioner model.ResultsMajor results include (a) a summary of psychological context for Olympic athletes in CCSs; (b) the temporal structure of Olympic preparation; (c) four categories of Olympic athletes; (d) consultants' strategies, reflecting major psychological aspects of Olympic preparation in CCSs; and (e) lessons learnt in working with Olympic athletes in CCSs.ConclusionThe authors emphasize the large responsibility of sport psychology practitioners working with Olympic athletes in CCSs and share lessons learnt, with a focus on seven major sport psychology approaches validated in their practice.     

Even More About Exercise Imagery: A Grounded Theory of Exercise Imagery

Abstract

It is hypothesized that perceived team performance in competition can be analyzed in terms of event expectancy (expected, unexpected event), direction of lead (one's own team, opposing team) and momentum (positive, negative). These three variables determine “game standings”. The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceived relative contribution of these variables to extreme psychological arousal states (crisis, noncrisis). Forty-five elite team handball experts responded to a questionnaire in which they were asked to estimate the occurrence probability of all possible “game standings” under crisis and noncrisis conditions, according to the Bayesian approach. An ANOVA procedure revealed that under the crisis condition, negative momentum, unexpected event, and lead by opposing team were rated as more probable, whereas positive momentum, expected event, and lead of one's own team were judged to more likely occur under the noncrisis condition. Moreover, the athlete's psychological stale (Crisis, noncrisis) was judged to be more strongly related to momentum than to event expectancy and direction of lead. The results are discussed in reference to concepts such as self-efficacy and psychological performance crisis in competition.     

Social support coping style predicts women’s cortisol in the laboratory and daily life: the moderating role of social attentional biases

Background and Objectives: Social stress and associated coping responses can profoundly influence women’s stress physiology and health. Implicit social attentional biases can also influence psychological and physiological stress responses. The purpose of this study was to explore whether a coping style characterized by greater use of social support predicts indices of cortisol activity in laboratory and daily life contexts among female university students. We hypothesized that the relation of this coping style to cortisol activity would be moderated by women’s attentional biases.

Methods: Seventy-four women (M_age?=?19.44, range: 17.8–27.8, 64% White) completed an interpersonal stress task and an attentional bias task in the lab, along with a self-report coping inventory. Participants provided five saliva samples during the lab protocol, followed by three saliva samples per day for three consecutive weekdays. Outcome measures included cortisol response to lab tasks (AUCg), diurnal cortisol slope, diurnal AUCg, and cortisol awakening response (CARi).

Results: A coping style characterized by greater use of social support predicted lower lab AUCg and lower, flatter average diurnal cortisol slope for women with attentional avoidance compared to women with attentional vigilance (ps?<?.05).

Conclusions: Responding to stress by using social support is linked to lower cortisol responses to social stress and diurnal cortisol activity for women with implicit avoidance of social threat cues.     

Stress appraisals influence athletic performance and psychophysiological response during 16.1 km cycling time trials

ObjectivesWe examined how stress appraisals were associated with emotions, coping behaviours, as well as subjective and objective measures of performance.DesignProspective field- and laboratory-based studies.MethodsIn Study 1, 192 athletes completed process-oriented psychometrics pertaining to the aforementioned constructs throughout a sporting competition. Study 2 utilised an experimental design to assess the causal influence of stress appraisals on performance, cortisol, and psychological variables. Thirty gender-matched athletes were randomly assigned to either a stress appraisal (e.g., challenge, threat, benefit, or harm/loss) or the control group. Participants completed three 16.1 km cycling time trials (TT) on a cycle ergometer, with their appropriate stress appraisal engendered via falsified performance feedback throughout the final TT. Salivary cortisol samples and psychometrics (e.g., appraisals, emotions, and coping) were collected before and after each TT.ResultsThe results of Study 1 revealed a sequential link between challenge stress appraisals and perceived goal attainment via pleasant emotions and task-oriented coping behaviours. Threat stress appraisals inversely related to goal attainment via unpleasant emotions and both distraction- and disengagement-oriented coping. In Study 2, no significant psychophysiological or performance differences were found across genders. The temporal orientation of stress appraisals influenced objective cycling TT performance. Benefit and harm/loss stress appraisals significantly facilitated or inhibited performance, respectively. Cortisol spikes were observed in the stress appraisal group’s threat, challenge, and benefit, with a decline detected within the harm/loss group. Whilst the process of winning is physiologically stressful, the fear of defeat may be more stressful than losing itself.ConclusionStress appraisals influence subjective and objective performance, as well as neuroendocrine and psychological responses to stress.     

Domain dimensionality and temporality of outcome expectancy for physical activity among middle-aged and older Chinese adults: A latent profile analysis

ObjectivesUsing a person-centered approach, this study aimed to identify the profiles of outcome expectancy for physical activity among middle-aged and older Chinese adults. Profiles were defined by two aspects of outcome expectancy including domain dimensionality and temporality, given the emphasis on social connectedness and the shortened future-time perception in this population.DesignCross-sectional survey design.MethodsParticipants included 300 Chinese adults aged 50 years or above, recruited in Hong Kong. Participants were asked to indicate their outcome expectancy for physical activity in physical, social and self-evaluative domains, rate the immediacy of each outcome expectancy item, and then report their physical activity for the past week. A latent class analysis was used to identify the number of profiles and profile characteristics, and to examine the predictors of the profile memberships and effects of the memberships on physical activity.ResultsResults suggested four profiles, including low, moderate, delayed-high and immediate-high expectancy classes. Temporality, rather than domain dimensionality, was essential in defining the profiles. Interdependent self-construal and future-time perception were predictive of the profile memberships. People with immediate-high expectancy were more physically active than those in other expectancy classes.ConclusionsThis study provided supporting evidence for the temporal self-regulation theory, and demonstrated the importance of immediate outcomes. More research attention in physical activity promotion should be given to the temporal dimension, especially for older adults who perceive future time as more limited. New directions to enhance outcome expectancies, especially for this population, also need further investigation.     

Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change

The effects of fear appeals on persuasion were investigated in a factorial experiment that was designed to test a combined model of protection motivation theory and self-efficacy theory. As predicted, the probability of a threat's occurrence and the effectiveness of a coping response both had positive main effects on intentions to adopt a recommended preventive health behavior. More importantly, the findings provided support for self-efficacy expectancy as a fourth component of protection motivation theory: Self-efficacy had a direct influence on intentions and interacted with two other variables of protection motivation theory. The interaction effect was interpreted in terms of two new decision-making strategies that people use when confronted with a fear appeal: a precaution strategy and a hyperdefensiveness strategy. In addition, the results replicated previous findings on the relationship between self-efficacy expectancy and outcome expectancy. A model incorporating protection motivation theory and self-efficacy theory is presented as a possible general model of attitude change.     

The dynamics of motivation and perceptions of control when competing in the Olympic Games.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between changes in motivational factors and perceptions of control among participants of the Norwegian Olympic Soccer Team for Women, prior to and during the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. The findings show that Task Orientation decreased when competing in the Olympic Games, as did the perception of a Mastery climate, while the perception of a Performance climate increased during the Games. The further findings support the proposed positive relationship between a high Task Orientation and high perceptions of control.