Development and Validation of a Military Training Mental Toughness Inventory

Three studies were conducted to develop and validate a mental toughness instrument for use in military training environments. Study 1 (n = 435) focused on item generation and testing the structural integrity of the Military Training Mental Toughness Inventory (MTMTI). The measure assessed ability to maintain optimal performance under pressure from a range of different stressors experienced by recruits during infantry basic training. Study 2 (n = 104) examined the concurrent validity, predictive validity, and test–retest reliability of the measure. Study 3 (n = 106) confirmed the predictive validity of the measure with a sample of more specialized infantry recruits. Overall, the military training mental toughness inventory demonstrated sound psychometric properties and structural validity. Furthermore, it was found to possess good test–retest reliability, concurrent validity, and predicted performance in 2 different training contexts with 2 separate samples.     

Low Intensity Conflict Stress in Soldiers: Building Coping Skills and Resources

With the conventional wars being rarer, low intensity conflict (LIC) operations have now become a norm. This new military environment is characterized by ambiguous and unpredictable situations, complex goals, invisible enemy combatants, political sensitivities, undefined restraints on weaponry tactics and associated multiple microstressors that make it highly stressful and cognitively demanding for soldiers. Considering LIC stress under a holistic / interactionistic paradigm, this review paper examines (i) the unique stressors of LIC operations and their impact on soldiers?? mental health and fitness, cognitive functioning, combat readiness and effective performance; (ii) preventive training programmes (Hardiness Training and Comprehensive Soldier Fitness) for developing and sustaining resilience; (iii) the central role of military leadership and structure as key components of combat stress control, unit cohesion, institutional support and other HR practices (e.g., command consultation, grievance redresssal, performance appraisal, communication, conflict resolution); and (iv) mental health services as coping resources and potential stress countermeasures such as psychological first aid, after-action debriefing, operational stress training, suicide prevention, treatment of stress casualities, help-seeking skills and self-care as part of preventive mental health training and post-trauma rehabilitation. The roles of both the skill-building and the stress-combating aspects of training, leadership, organizational support / HR practices and mental health services seem important as potential moderators of stress-strain relationship in LIC operations.     

Training needs among nonmental health professionals working with service members: A qualitative investigation

Though many service members will not directly seek mental health care due to stigma and other factors, they may interact with the healthcare system in other ways including contact with first responders, nurses, and allied health care professionals. However, little attention has been spent in this regard on the educational needs of these professionals whose contact with service members and Veterans may provide the opportunity to assist Veterans in need with overcoming barriers to accessing mental health care. This qualitative study investigates the educational training needs of first responders and health care professionals in contact with military families and trauma survivors to determine whether, and what type, of additional training is needed. A sample of 42 first responders and health care professionals including emergency medical technicians, police officers, fire fighters, speech language pathologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and nurses were recruited to participate in 1 of 6 focus groups. Sessions were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. Data analysis was guided by a thematic analysis approach. Thematic analyses suggest there is a significant knowledge gap with unmet educational needs of these professionals such as information on the invisible wounds of war, military culture, and screening and referring patients who present symptoms falling outside professionals’ scope of practice. Findings point to a need and desire for more robust education for first responders and health care providers around mental health concerns of military populations, including topics such as trauma, military culture, and screening tools. Efforts to develop curricula addressing these concerns are warranted.     

Building the Better Mental Training Mousetrap: Is Periodization a More Systematic Approach to Promoting Performance Excellence?

Over the past two decades, mental skills training (MST) has experienced a tremendous surge in popularity, yet MST is not without its critics, including some athletes and coaches. Additionally, a number of concerns have arisen about mental training effectiveness, and its ability to maximize athlete development, performance, and peaking. Periodization is a systematic program development and implementation strategy that holds promise for enhancing mental training effectiveness and combating some of the problems currently limiting MST interventions. Thus, the purpose of this conceptual paper was threefold. First, periodization concepts are introduced by demonstrating how they are utilized to systematically guide physical training. Second, strategies to adapt periodization concepts to enhance mental training programs are examined, along with techniques to integrate physical and mental training, including: mental training tool and skill periodization plans and mental training drill menus. Finally, a case study is presented to illustrate how an integrated approach to periodized training that targets both physical and mental skill development can enhance the effectiveness of MST while minimizing implementation problems.     

Mental imagery combined with physical practice of approach shots for golf beginners

Recent research on motor skills of golf have pointed to the usefulness of mental imagery. In golf, such training is rarely used as a teaching technique for beginners on the grounds that only top professionals stand to gain from mental imagery. This study tested whether mental imagery combined with physical practice can improve golf performance for the approach shot. 23 volunteer beginners, 8 women and 15 men, M age 23.4 yr. (SD = 3.7), enrolled in the University Physical and Sporting Activities Department, were divided into three groups, using a combination of physical practice of the approach shot plus mental imagery, physical practice only, and a third group engaging in various sporting activities instead of either mental or physical practice of the chip shot. Analysis showed that the beginners' approach shot performance improved most in the group combining physical practice and mental imagery when compared with the group just physically practising the approach shot. It seems mental training can be used effectively to improve performance even with beginners.     

Implementation and Dissemination of Military Informed and Evidence-Based Interventions for Community Dwelling Military Families

Community dwelling military families from the National Guard and Reserve contend with deployment-related stressors in relative isolation, living in communities where mental health providers may have little knowledge of military culture. When they are community residents, active duty service members and families tend to live in close proximity to their military installations. This article will focus primarily on the challenges to quality mental health care for reserve component (RC) families. Where studies of RC families are absent, those of active component (AC) families will be highlighted as relevant. Upon completion of a deployment, reintegration for RC families is complicated by high rates of symptomatology, low service utilization, and greater barriers to care relative to AC families. A paucity of providers skilled in evidence-based treatments (EBTs) limits community mental health capacity to serve RC military families. Several emergent programs illustrate the potential for better serving community dwelling military families. Approaches include behavioral health homes, EBTs and treatment components, structured resiliency and parent training, military informed schools, outreach methods, and technology-based coping, and psychoeducation. Methods from implementation science to improve clinical skill acquisition and spread and sustainability of EBTs may advance access to and quality of mental health treatment and are reviewed herein. Recommendations related to research methods, military knowledge and treatment competencies, and transition to a public health model of service delivery are discussed.     

Relevance of Hardiness Assessment and Training to the Military Context

Hardiness is a pattern of attitudes and skills that provides the courage and strategies to turn stressful circumstances from potential disasters into growth opportunities instead. As such, hardiness is particularly relevant to inherently stressful settings, such as military service. First, theory and research on hardiness assessment and training is summarized in a manner than highlights relevance to stressful situations. Discussed then are likely applications of hardiness assessment and training in particular military contexts, such as selection and preparation for Special Forces or other extreme assignments, and treatment of combat-related physical and mental disabilities.     

Do Computer-Based Games Facilitate Knowledge Acquisition and Retention?

This study investigated the effects of a gaming approach on knowledge acquisition and retention in military trainees. Three groups of trainees were presented with subject matter in paper-based prose form (text), paper-based question-and-answer form (test), or computer-based gaming form (game). These conditions were selected to investigate potential benefits of computer-based gaming over traditional paper-and-pencil media in terms of trainee performance and reaction. Results showed that participants assigned to the game condition scored significantly higher on a retention test com- pared to pretest performance. Furthermore, participants assigned to the game condition scored significantly higher on a retention test than did participants assigned to the text condition. Participants assigned to the test and text conditions showed no benefit from training in performance at the retention test. In addition, participants assigned to the game condition rated the training they received as more enjoyable and more effective than did those assigned to the other 2 conditions. Results are discussed in terms of the effectiveness of computer-based games for military training applications.     

Training Experiences as Mediators of the Association Between Gender-Role Egalitarianism and Women��s Adjustment to Marine Recruit Training

Women may face particular challenges adjusting to the military environment, in part due to their numerical minority status in a traditionally male culture. In addition, women are more likely than men to experience the added stressor of sexual harassment. We examined several potential mediators of the relationship between gender-role egalitarianism and adjustment to boot camp training in a sample of 658 female U.S. Marine recruits. Results indicated that sexual harassment, performance stress, and unit cohesion mediated the relationship between egalitarianism and mental health symptomatology. These findings suggest that beliefs about gender roles are important to consider in efforts to improve women??s adjustment in the military.     

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTINGENCY MODEL TRAINING: A REVIEW OF THE VALIDATION OF LEADER MATCH1

Twelve studies testing the effectiveness of LEADER MATCH, a new approach to leadership training, are reviewed. The training program is presented in a self-paced, programmed instruction manual based on Fiedler's Contingency Model (1964, 1967). Five studies were conducted in civilian organizations and seven were conducted in military settings. The performance evaluations were collected from two to six months after training and in some studies included pre and post measures. The performance evaluations of 423 trained leaders were compared with those of 484 leaders who have been randomly assigned to control groups. All 12 studies yielded statistically significant results supporting LEADER MATCH training.     

Leaders as attachment figures: leaders' attachment orientations predict leadership-related mental representations and followers' performance and mental health

In 3 studies, the authors examined the contribution of leaders' attachment styles to their leadership motives and beliefs and to followers' outcomes. In Study 1, participants completed measures of attachment orientation, leadership motives, self-representations, and leadership style. Studies 2 and 3 were conducted within Israeli military units either during a leadership workshop or during intensive combat training. Israeli military officers and their soldiers (followers) reported on their attachment styles, and the soldiers reported on the officers' leadership qualities and on the soldiers' own performance and mental health. Leaders' attachment anxiety was associated with more self-serving leadership motives and with poorer leadership qualities in task-oriented situations. Leaders' attachment anxiety also predicted followers' poorer instrumental functioning. Leaders' attachment-related avoidance was negatively associated with prosocial motives to lead, with the failure to act as a security provider, and with followers' poorer socioemotional functioning and poorer long-range mental health. Results are discussed with respect to the value of attachment theory for the study of leadership.     

Performance Measurement in Distributed Environments: Initial Results and Implications for Training

Advances in telecommunications and simulation technologies have created opportunities for conducting distributed team training through networked simulations. In distributed team training, in which simulators may be geographically dispersed, military teams train together in the same battlespace despite the physical separation. In these types of training environments, multiple users are located at multiple sites; consequently, the efficient and effective conduct of training is a challenge. One area that is particularly challenging is the measurement of team performance. Two case studies are reported in which team performance measurement instruments were developed and tested in a distributed training environment. The measurement tools were designed within the context of an instructional approach known as event-based training, which relies on the creation of explicit linkages among learning objectives, exercise events, performance measures, and after-action review or feedback. Active duty, reserve, and National Guard personnel from the Marine Corps, Air Force, and Army participated in several days of training exercises conducted within a network of simulators that were geographically distributed across the United States. The development and use of the measurement instruments are described, data from both case studies are presented, and implications for training are discussed.     

Initial job analysis of military embedded behavioral health services: Tasks and essential competencies

Utilization of mental health personnel assigned to operational military units is an area of growth for the US military. What activities they perform, how requirements may differ from working in clinical settings, and how to select and train for these types of positions is still poorly understood. A job analysis was conducted of Air Force mental health providers and enlisted technicians embedded in special operations, intelligence, and high-risk training units. Participants rated 27 tasks on frequency, importance, difficulty, and risks, as well as the importance of 37 knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs), with differentiation between KSAs that may be trained versus those that must be present to be assigned to the embedded position. Tasks reflected 4 areas of activity: unit embedding/engagement, behavioral health consultation and support, performance optimization activities, and operational mission tasks. Tasks varied by professional training (psychologist, social worker, enlisted technician) and unit type. The KSAs rated as most important were ethical judgment and ability to manage complex relationships and boundaries while working outside of a clinic, strong interpersonal skills with appropriate assertiveness to advocate for safe, effective courses of action, and understanding of unit missions and organizational dynamics. Results have implications for job design, selection criteria, professional disciplines with KSAs necessary to unit-specific tasks, and training of personnel for integrated operational support positions.     

Editorial

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Outcome Questionnaire-30.2 (OQ-30.2; designed to measure patient progress throughout mental health treatment) in a sample of United States Air Force active duty basic military trainees who were evaluated for mental health concerns during the course of basic training. Findings indicate that the OQ-30.2 was internally consistent and Total scores decreased with more contact with mental health professionals. Previously reported 1- and 3-factor structures were not replicated; rather, results suggested the use of a broad 27-item general psychological distress subscale and a separate subscale of 3 critical items assessing substance use concerns. Present findings support the utility of the OQ-30.2 as a tool for repeated monitoring of patient progress in military mental health settings. Recommendations for future directions in the development of alternate calculations of the clinical cut score and reliable change index are discussed.     

Improving computer skill training: behavior modeling, symbolic mental rehearsal, and the role of knowledge structures

Effective computer skill training is vital to organizational productivity. Two experiments (N = 288) demonstrated that the behavior modeling approach to computer skill training could be substantially improved by incorporating symbolic mental rehearsal (SMR). SMR is a specific form of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual images and symbolic memory codes. As theorized, the significant effects of SMR on declarative knowledge and task performance were shown to be fully mediated by changes in trainees' knowledge structures. The mediational role of knowledge structures is expected to generalize to other training interventions and cognitive skill domains. Our findings have the immediate implications that practitioners should use SMR for improving the effectiveness of computer skill training.     

Training fast and frugal heuristics in military decision making

Fast and frugal heuristics have been used to model decision making in applied domains very effectively, suggesting that they could be used to improve applied decision making. We developed a fast and frugal heuristic for infantry decisions using experts from the British Army. This was able to predict around 80% of their decisions using three cues. Next, we examined the benefits of learning to use the fast and frugal heuristic by training junior officers in the British Army to apply the heuristic and assessing their accuracy and mental workload when making decisions. Their performance was compared to a control condition of junior officers who applied standard military decision methods. Participants using the fast and frugal heuristic made decisions as accurately as participants in the control condition, but with reduced mental demand. This demonstrates that fast and frugal heuristics can be learnt and are as effective as analytic decision methods.     

The Value of Strength-Based Approaches in SERE and Sport Psychology

During the past 2 decades, the psychosocial landscapes of the military and elite sport have drastically changed, with the presence of stress an increasing health and safety concern. For example, in modern warfare, fighters must have the psychological capabilities to counter terrorism and undertake extended deployments in extreme environments against enemies with increasing skills for rapid development and dissemination of information and weaponry via global communication networks. In sport, performers have also reported being affected by globalization, reporting a hazardous array of stressors (e.g., roles, relationships, development issues, and organizational structure and climate) associated with preparation for and performance at major international competitions. The result of such developments is the need for leaders in both the military and sport to better understand optimal performance, and in particular the preparation of their charges, the war fighter and athlete, for the demands of their respective competition arenas. Therefore, in this narrative review we identify strength-based concepts of common interest and potential knowledge transfer in the study of psychology of excellence in the face of adversity between sport and military domains. Specifically, we highlight a value of 6 strength-based concepts for elite performance environments in sport (i.e., Olympic performance) and the military (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Extraction: SERE); mental toughness, positive emotion, learned optimism, resilience, posttraumatic growth, and self- and emotion regulation. In line with this discussion we highlight commonalities and knowledge transfer considerations regarding interventions in these spheres of psychological practice, the potential value of humanism and existentialism, the importance of post career and rehabilitation intervention, and readiness to change and engagement in training.     

AN OBJECTIVE GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR A PERSONAL INTERVIEW IN THE PREDICTION OF SUCCESS IN MILITARY TRAINING IN ISRAEL

The need for reliable and valid measures of personality and motivational factors in the prediction of success in military training was discussed. The personnel classification system currently used by the Israeli Army was briefly described. The personality factors used in that system are measured by an interview, which is individually administered to each enlisted man. The goal of the present study was to replace this interview by an objective group questionnaire, with the hope of saving time, manpower and effort without any loss to predictive validity. The criterion for validation of the system was the performance of the soldiers in elementary training. This performance was assessed by commanding officers and by peers. The results showed that the questionnaire is eventually equivalent to the interview as a predictor of performance in military training. It was concluded that the questionnaire should be preferred for economical reasons.     

Application of Cognitive Load Theory to Develop a Measure of Team Cognitive Efficiency

Improving human systems integration through technologically advanced training and performance aids has become increasingly important to military transformation. Measures of improved cognitive and coordination processes arising from the employment of transformational tools are necessary to guide the refinement and future development of such technologies. In this article, we describe a cognitive load theory approach to developing a combinatory measure of individual workload and team performance following an experimental intervention involving training and a decision support system. We discuss how indicators of what we term team cognitive efficiency can improve assessing the effectiveness of transformational processes and technologies.