Psychological need satisfaction,intrinsic motivation and affective response to exercise in adolescents

ObjectivesTo further understanding of the factors influencing adolescents' motivations for physical activity, the relationship of variables derived from Self-Determination Theory to adolescents' affective response to exercise was examined.DesignCorrelational.MethodAdolescents (N = 182) self-reported psychological needs satisfaction (perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy) and intrinsic motivation related to exercise. In two clinic visits, adolescents reported their affect before, during, and after a moderate-intensity and a hard-intensity exercise task.ResultsAffective response to exercise and psychological needs satisfaction independently contributed to the prediction of intrinsic motivation in hierarchical linear regression models. The association between affective response to exercise and intrinsic motivation was partially mediated by psychological needs satisfaction.ConclusionsIntrinsic motivation for exercise among adolescents may be enhanced when the environment supports perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy, and when adolescents participate in activities that they find enjoyable.     

Dimensions of Coaching Behavior, Need Satisfaction, and the Psychological and Physical Welfare of Young Athletes

Grounded in self-determination theory (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 2000), the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of dimensions of coaching behavior to intrinsic need satisfaction and indices of psychological and physical well-being among male adolescent athletes. Participants were 265 British soccer and cricket players (M _age = 16.44). Structural equation modeling analysis, using maximum likelihood robust method, showed athletes' perceptions of autonomy support, mastery focus, and social support from the coach to predict their satisfaction of the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, respectively. The satisfaction of the need for competence emerged as the most important predictor of psychological and physical well-being. The findings suggest that particular aspects of the social environment may be salient for fostering particular psychological needs. The results also underline the importance of perceived competence for the psychological and physical welfare of adolescents in team sports.     

Athletes’ Motivation Regulations and Need Satisfaction Across Combinations of Perceived Coaching Behaviors

Cluster analysis was used to identify combinations of perceived coaching behaviors (i.e., autonomy support and four controlling coaching behaviors). Motivation regulations and need satisfaction were tested for differences across profiles. Results revealed 3 profiles of college swimmers (N = 165) based on their responses to measures of study variables. The profiles had relatively more autonomy support or more controlling coaching behaviors or a combination of the 2. The profile with greater autonomy support and lower controlling coaching behaviors reported the most positive motivation experiences. Findings illustrate the independence of these coaching behaviors and offer practical suggestions for college swim coaches.     

A Test of Self-Determination Theory in the Exercise Domain

In accordance with self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985 ), this study examined the relationship between autonomy support, psychological need satisfaction, motivational regulations, and exercise behavior. Participants ( N =369) were recruited from fitness, community, and retail settings. Fulfillment of the 3 basic psychological needs (i.e., competence, autonomy, and relatedness) related to more self-determined motivational regulations. Identified and introjected regulations emerged as positive predictors of strenuous and total exercise behaviors. Competence need satisfaction also predicted directly—and indirectly via identified regulation—strenuous exercise. For participants engaged in organized fitness classes, perceptions of autonomy support provided by exercise class leaders predicted psychological need satisfaction. Furthermore, competence need satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between autonomy support and intrinsic motivation. These findings support SDT in the exercise domain.     

An investigation of the unique,synergistic and balanced relationships between basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation

The purpose of this study was to empirically investigate the relationship between psychological need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation as proposed by self‐determination theory. Three competing hypotheses regarding the relations between need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation were tested: additive, synergistic, and balance. Two cross‐sectional studies involving 1,254 employees from a broad range of Norwegian service organizations partly supported the first two hypotheses. Although the relationship between satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and relatedness with intrinsic motivation were significant, the one with satisfaction of the need for competence was not. Instead, competence was only related to intrinsic motivation when autonomy was high. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.     

独立、协同和平衡视角下的单维式基本心理需要满足

通过聚焦各需要满足(自主、归属或能力满足)间的“异质”性, 单维式基本心理需要满足的探索为基本心理需要满足研究的整体框架提供了重要补充。独立、协同和平衡视角下, 综述了单维式需要满足影响个体的理论基础(内部动机和内化的外部动机的心理机制)和研究现状; 提出并论述了三种需要满足的有限可替代性。未来研究应深化三种视角的需要满足研究、探索需要满足间的补偿效应、单维式需要满足的神经基础和单维式基本需要受阻等。     

Goal contents,motivation, psychological need satisfaction,well-being and physical activity: A test of self-determination theory over 6 months

ObjectivesThis investigation examined how Goal Contents Theory, Organismic Integration Theory, and Basic Psychological Needs Theory collectively explain well-being and behavioral outcomes related to physical activity over 6 months. Specifically we examined a model whereby changes in relative intrinsic goal contents → changes in motivation → changes in psychological need satisfaction → well-being and physical activity.Methods and designParticipants were 203 adults from the general population (68.00% female; M_age = 32.57 years, SD = 15.73). Two identical questionnaire packages containing assessments of goal contents, motivational regulations, basic psychological need satisfaction, indicators of well-being and physical activity behavior, separated by six months were given to participants. Residualized change scores were analyzed with path analysis.ResultsResults supported the hypothesized sequence of SDT. Changes in psychological need satisfaction mediated the relationship between changes in autonomous motivation and well-being. A more complex pattern of results emerged for the indirect effects of motivation and psychological need satisfaction between relative intrinsic goals → well-being. Changes in competence satisfaction mediated the relationship between autonomous motivation and physical activity behavior. Moreover, changes in autonomous motivation through competence satisfaction mediated the relationship between relative intrinsic goals and physical activity.ConclusionsFindings support a model based on 3 mini-theories of SDT and suggest that psychological need fulfillment during physical activity could be a key mechanism that facilitates increased well-being and behavior. Findings also highlight the importance of examining competence, autonomy, and relatedness independently (rather than as a composite).     

Greater autonomous motivation for study and basic psychological need satisfaction by being presently aware and ‘letting go’: An exploration of mindful attention and nonattachment

Mindful attention appears to facilitate greater satisfaction of basic psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness). Recent findings suggest that nonattachment may arise from mindfulness, with nonattachment being found to mediate relationships between mindfulness and various outcomes, such as increased wellbeing. Across two undergraduate samples, nonattachment was found to partially mediate relationships between mindful attention and the perceived satisfaction of each of autonomy, competence, and relatedness with others (N?=?247), and greater relative autonomous motivation for study (N?=?578). The findings therefore support and extend on existing research related to mindful attention within the Self-Determination Theory literature while also adding to the growing literature on the apparent benefits of nonattachment. Future research on autonomous motivation and basic need satisfaction may therefore benefit from considering nonattachment alongside mindful attention.

     

Development of a tool for quantifying need-supportive coaching in technology-mediated exercise classes

Technology-mediated interventions to promote physical activity are growing in popularity and appear to be effective for supporting continued adherence for some people. Some of this efficacy may be related to the cultivation of motivation that is self-determined (i.e., autonomous), which is posited to arise from the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. We developed an observational coding tool for quantifying the frequency of needs-supportive and needs-indifferent coaching during technology-mediated exercise classes. The Peloton Instructor Needs-Supportive Coaching (PINC) tool shows evidence of reliability (average kappa = .91). We also demonstrated the utility of the PINC for characterizing needs-supportive coaching profiles across 4 different types of classes (Beginner, Power Zone, Groove, and High-Intensity Interval Training) and the construct validity of the PINC with respect to examining the relationship of needs-supportive coaching to intrinsic motivation. The PINC offers a useful tool with which future studies could evaluate whether and how instructor coaching impacts self-determined motivation to exercise within a technology-mediated context.     

Psychosocial determinants of young athletes' continued participation over time

The aim of this study was to examine the differences in psychosocial and motivational variables between persistent and dropout youth athletes and between groups with different years in training. Team and individual youth athletes completed questionnaires measuring autonomy support from parents and coaches, peer motivational climate, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and sport motivation. The results showed that athletes who dropped out perceived significantly less competence, relatedness, and autonomy need satisfaction, and they perceived less autonomy support from parents and were less intrinsically motivated than persistent athletes. Youth athletes with up to one year in training reported significantly lower effort and intra-team conflict with peers, relatedness need satisfaction, and external motivation than athletes with 1 to 3 years and >3 years in training. Findings extend knowledge of the psychosocial determinants of sport continuation behaviour among young athletes.     

Assessing Autonomy-Supportive Coaching Strategies in Youth Sport

OBJECTIVES: Autonomy support is a component of the motivational climate in youth sport that may promote youth's internalization of behaviors and attitudes. This study examined the psychometric properties of the Autonomy-Supportive Coaching Questionnaire (ASCQ), a measure of two forms of autonomy-supportive coaching perceived by young athletes. DESIGN: The study design was non-experimental. METHODS: Over a six-week season, youth (N = 165) participating in a recreational summer swim league completed measures of perceived coaching behavior (weeks 1 and 5), autonomy-supportive coaching (week 5) and psychological need satisfaction (weeks 1 and 6). RESULTS: Responses to the ASCQ could be reduced to two correlated factors representing an "interest in athlete's input" and "praise for autonomous behavior." These factors exhibited slightly different relations with perceived coaching behaviors and positively predicted coaching-associated contrasts in the satisfaction of all three basic psychological needs. CONCLUSIONS: The ASCQ appears to provide a valid assessment of young athlete's perceptions of autonomy-supportive coaching. Autonomy-supportive coaching should be evaluated as a potential source of motivational consequences of coaching and as a potential moderator of coaching effects on youth internalization.     

Predicting moral attitudes and antisocial behavior in young team sport athletes: A self‐determination theory perspective

Identifying the factors associated with prosocial and antisocial behaviors in youth sport may provide evidence to inform interventions aimed at promoting prosocial behaviors and minimizing rule transgressions in young athletes. We investigated relations among social‐contextual factors (e.g., social support), personal motivational factors (e.g., psychological need satisfaction and motivation), young athletes’ attitudes toward prosocial (e.g., keeping winning in proportion) and antisocial (e.g., acceptance of cheating and gamesmanship) behaviors, and their actual rule violations during matches in two samples of athletes. Participants in Sample 1 were young team sport athletes (N = 355) and participants in Sample 2 were young male futsal players (N = 296). Athletes in Sample 1 completed validated self‐report measures of perceived autonomy support, basic need satisfaction, and autonomous and controlled motivation from self‐determination theory, moral attitudes, and past cheating behaviors. Athletes in Sample 2 completed identical measures and two additional behavioral measures: athletes’ self‐reported number of yellow cards received during competition in the last 6 months and the number of yellow cards athletes received from referees in the subsequent 2 months from competition records. We found significant relations between psychological need satisfaction and self‐determined motivation, and athletes’ moral attitudes in both samples. These effects held when statistically controlling for past behavior. Importantly, our prospective analysis of Sample 2 indicated that attitudes toward antisocial behaviors predicted athletes’ rule violations during subsequent tournament matches. Findings indicate that promoting autonomous motivation and need satisfaction through autonomy support may foster attitudes toward prosocial behaviors, and minimize rule transgressions, in young athletes.     

Show them the money? The role of pay,managerial need support,and justice in a self‐determination theory model of intrinsic work motivation

The link between money and motivation has been a debated topic for decades, especially in work organizations. However, field studies investigating the amount of pay in relation to employee motivation is lacking and there have been calls for empirical studies addressing compensation systems and motivation in the work domain. The purpose of this study was to examine outcomes associated with the amount of pay, and perceived distributive and procedural justice regarding pay in relation to those for perceived managerial need support. Participants were 166 bank employees who also reported on their basic psychological need satisfaction and intrinsic work motivation. SEM‐analyses tested a self‐determination theory (SDT) model, with satisfaction of the competence and autonomy needs as an intervening variable. The primary findings were that amount of pay and employees' perceived distributive justice regarding their pay were unrelated to employees' need satisfaction and intrinsic work motivation, but procedural justice regarding pay did affect these variables. However, managerial need support was the most important factor for promoting need satisfaction and intrinsic work motivation both directly, indirectly, and as a moderator in the model. Hence, the results of the present organizational field study support earlier laboratory experiments within the SDT framework showing that monetary rewards did not enhance intrinsic motivation. This seems to have profound implications for organizations concerned about motivating their employees.     

Self-esteem,motivation and school attendance among sub-Saharan African girls: A self-determination theory perspective

Sub-Saharan samples are severely under-represented in the psychological literature. Taking an ecological approach, the current study examines key propositions derived from self-determination theory in a sample of adolescent girls in Mozambique. As a framework theory, self-determination theory consists of six sub-theories. We test the main premises of two of these theories: organismic integration theory and basic psychological need theory. In line with organismic integration theory, we assess the role of intrinsic, extrinsic, introjected and identified motivation for school attendance. We also test the possible moderating role of the ecological variable resource scarcity. The second part of the study focuses on the main premise of the basic psychological need sub-theory, which states that satisfaction of the needs for relatedness, competence and autonomy underlies intrinsic motivation, goal-directed behaviour (school attendance) and well-being (self-esteem). The study also assesses the moderation of resource scarcity in these relationships. Results provide support for both sub-theories of self-determination theory. Resource scarcity is not found to moderate the relationships between motivation and attendance or between need satisfaction and well-being, motivation and attendance. Implications for the universality claim of self-determination theory, as well as for the field of international development aid, are discussed.     

Extending the trans‐contextual model in physical education and leisure‐time contexts: Examining the role of basic psychological need satisfaction

Background. The trans‐contextual model (TCM) is an integrated model of motivation that aims to explain the processes by which agentic support for autonomous motivation in physical education promotes autonomous motivation and physical activity in a leisure‐time context. It is proposed that perceived support for autonomous motivation in physical education is related to autonomous motivation in physical education and leisure‐time contexts. Furthermore, relations between autonomous motivation and the immediate antecedents of intentions to engage in physical activity behaviour and actual behaviour are hypothesized. Aims. The purpose of the present study was to incorporate the constructs of basic psychological need satisfaction in the TCM to provide a more comprehensive explanation of motivation and demonstrate the robustness of the findings of previous tests of the model that have not incorporated these constructs. Sample. Students (N=274) from Greek secondary schools. Method. Participants completed self‐report measures of perceived autonomy support, autonomous motivation, and basic psychological need satisfaction in physical education. Follow‐up measures of these variables were taken in a leisure‐time context along with measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control (PBC), and intentions from the theory of planned behaviour 1 week later. Self‐reported physical activity behaviour was measured 4 weeks later. Results. Results supported TCM hypotheses. Basic psychological need satisfaction variables uniquely predicted autonomous motivation in physical education and leisure time as well as the antecedents of intention, namely, attitudes, and PBC. The basic psychological need satisfaction variables also mediated the effects of perceived autonomy support on autonomous motivation in physical education. Conclusions. Findings support the TCM and provide further information of the mechanisms in the model and integrated theories of motivation in physical education and leisure time.     

Modeling indicators and outcomes of students’ perceived teacher relatedness support in high school physical education

Research based in self-determination theory has demonstrated the importance of social agents for motivational processes in school-based physical education (PE). To focus more closely on the relational processes that underpin students’ motivation in PE, there have been calls for researchers to explore the specific teacher behaviors that facilitate students’ relatedness in PE. Our aim was to test a higher-order measurement model comprising distinct relatedness-supportive teacher behaviors, and to explore the ways in which students’ perceptions about their teacher directly and/or indirectly predict relatedness need satisfaction and motivation in PE. To test our higher-order model (Study 1), 656 high-school PE students reported the extent to which their teachers engaged in relatedness-supportive behaviors. In Study 2, 570 high-school PE students reported their motivational regulations for PE, as well as the extent to which their teacher engaged in relatedness-supportive behaviors, and satisfied their need for relatedness. We found support for the higher-order relatedness support model, and observed predictive pathways that were consistent with theory. Students reported satisfaction of their need for relatedness when they felt relatedness support from their teachers (β = 0.52, p < 0.001) and relatedness need satisfaction was in turn positively related to intrinsic (β = 0.51, p < 0.001), identified (β = 0.49, p < 0.001), and introjected (β = 0.25, p < 0.001) regulations for PE. These findings demonstrate the importance of relatedness-supportive teaching in PE, and implications of these data are discussed.     

Need fulfillment and motivation in physical education predict trajectories of change in leisure-time physical activity in early adolescence

ObjectivesWe examined (1) how psychological need fulfillment and motivation in physical education and leisure-time physical activity change during early adolescence, and (2) the degree to which need fulfillment and motivation predict trajectories of change in physical activity.DesignLongitudinal survey.MethodsStudents (N = 134, ages 10–13 years) completed surveys assessing perceived competence, autonomy, relatedness, intrinsic motivation, and identified, introjected, and external regulations in physical education, and leisure time physical activity each semester in school for 3 years.ResultsUnconditional growth models showed an average increase in physical activity. Competence also increased, while autonomy and relatedness, and identified and introjected regulation decreased. Conditional models showed that students with higher levels of autonomy, relatedness, intrinsic motivation, and identified regulation had higher levels of physical activity at baseline and throughout the study. Students with lower levels of autonomy, relatedness, intrinsic motivation, and identified regulation experienced significantly greater increases in physical activity, but these effects were very small.ConclusionsNeed fulfillment and motivation variables positively predict physical activity. While youth with lower levels of need fulfillment and motivation have lower levels of physical activity, they also tend to increase physical activity levels more across early adolescence. These associations highlight how physical education experiences in early adolescence may influence change in physical activity, and suggest efforts to foster need fulfillment and autonomous regulation in physical education may promote physical activity.     

The Motivating Potential of Leader Behaviors: A Comparison of Two Models1

The motivating potential of leader behaviors was investigated in a comparative test of two models relating leader behaviors, perceived role clarity, psychological influence, perceived self-competence, self-determination, and intrinsic motivation. Based on the data from 422 naval personnel and their immediate supervisors, it would appear that leaders' informational and controlling behaviors influence subordinates' perceptions of role clarity and psychological influence. Self-determination and self-competence also influence these perceptions. Psychological influence increases intrinsic motivation but role clarity influences intrinsic motivation only indirectly through its influence on psychological influence.     

How class cohesion and teachers’ relatedness supportive/thwarting style relate to students’ relatedness,motivation, and positive and negative outcomes in physical education

The main goal of this study was to examine the links between class cohesion and teachers’ relatedness teaching style with students’ relatedness needs, motivation, and positive and negative outcomes in Physical Education. A total of 1294 students 10–18 years old (M = 14.40, SD = 1.99), 613 males (M = 14.48, SD = 1.95) and 681 females (M = 14.33, SD = 2.02), agreed to participate. They were enrolled in 88 classes belonging to 13 different primary and secondary schools in southwestern Spain. The study followed a correlational research design. Results of the multilevel path model showed a positive relationship between teachers’ relatedness support and class cohesion and behavioral and emotional engagement through relatedness need satisfaction and autonomous and controlled motivation. Results also showed a positive relationship between teachers’ relatedness thwarting and disruptive behaviors and problematic relationships through relatedness need frustration and amotivation. In conclusion, teachers’ relatedness behaviors and class cohesion can significantly impact the students’ relatedness and motivation, which in turn will affect their engagement and behaviors. A whole cascade of consequences begins with the way teachers teach and the cohesion generated in class. These first steps cannot be overlooked.     

Collegiate Assistant Coaches’ Perceptions of Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Thwarting from Head Coaches: A Qualitative Investigation

Seventeen National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I assistant coaches participated in semi-structured interviews about the role head coaches play in fulfilling or thwarting their basic psychological needs and motivation. Using Consensual Qualitative Research procedures, four domains emerged: (a) assistant coaches have a need to make a difference; (b) cultural factors in coaching that affect head coach behaviors; (c) quality communication facilitates “being on the same page”; and (d) making assistant coaches feel valued, competent, and connected strengthens their motivation. Findings highlight elements of effective interactions that can enhance assistant coaches’ need satisfaction and, ultimately, their motivation and professional growth.

Lay Summary:

This study explored the role that head coaches played in influencing assistant coaches’ basic psychological needs and motivation. Head coaches satisfied assistant coaches’ basic psychological needs and enhanced motivation by giving them meaningful responsibilities, genuinely seeking their opinion, recognizing their efforts, caring about them as people, and investing in their development.