The influence of dispositional and situational tendencies on adolescent girls’ sport confidence sources

Objectives: To examine the influence of female athletes’ goal orientations and perceptions of motivational climate on sources of sport confidence. We hypothesized that task orientation and perceptions of mastery climate would be positively associated with adaptive or self-referenced sources of sport confidence. Ego orientation and perceptions of performance climate were expected to be positively associated with maladaptive or normative sources of confidence.Design: A field correlational study design was used to examine the relationships among goal orientations, motivational climate, and sport confidence sources, and to test both mediator and moderator effects of motivational climate on the relationship between goal orientations and sport confidence sources.Method: Participants were 180 competitive female volleyball players aged 12–18 years. Athletes completed three questionnaires assessing goal orientations, perceptions of motivational climate, and sources of sport confidence.Results: Task orientation and perceptions of mastery climate were positively associated with adaptive sources of sport confidence as well as social/environmental sources. Ego orientation was positively associated with maladaptive sources of confidence. Perceptions of mastery climate supported a mediational rather than a moderational role for motivational climate in predicting the social support and coach’s leadership sources of sport confidence.Conclusion: The significant mediating influence of a mastery climate established by the coach provides important implications for coaches who want to build self-confidence in adolescent female athletes.     

Assessing Autonomy-Supportive Coaching Strategies in Youth Sport

OBJECTIVES: Autonomy support is a component of the motivational climate in youth sport that may promote youth's internalization of behaviors and attitudes. This study examined the psychometric properties of the Autonomy-Supportive Coaching Questionnaire (ASCQ), a measure of two forms of autonomy-supportive coaching perceived by young athletes. DESIGN: The study design was non-experimental. METHODS: Over a six-week season, youth (N = 165) participating in a recreational summer swim league completed measures of perceived coaching behavior (weeks 1 and 5), autonomy-supportive coaching (week 5) and psychological need satisfaction (weeks 1 and 6). RESULTS: Responses to the ASCQ could be reduced to two correlated factors representing an "interest in athlete's input" and "praise for autonomous behavior." These factors exhibited slightly different relations with perceived coaching behaviors and positively predicted coaching-associated contrasts in the satisfaction of all three basic psychological needs. CONCLUSIONS: The ASCQ appears to provide a valid assessment of young athlete's perceptions of autonomy-supportive coaching. Autonomy-supportive coaching should be evaluated as a potential source of motivational consequences of coaching and as a potential moderator of coaching effects on youth internalization.     

Transformational Leadership and Athlete Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Coaching Competency

Drawing on social cognitive theory, we examine the relationship between coaches’ transformational leadership and athletes’ evaluations of coaches’ coaching competency. We also investigate how coaching competency can mediate the positive effect of coaches’ transformational leadership on athletes’ satisfaction. Using path analysis with bootstrapping techniques, we analyzed 397 competitive volleyball players to test our research model. Our results revealed that (a) coaches’ transformational leadership has a positive effect on coaching competency, and (b) coaching competency mediates the positive effect of coaches’ transformational leadership on athletes’ satisfaction. Implications for coach education and sport psychology in terms of theory and research are discussed.     

Task familiarity and task efficacy: a study of sports coaches

The purpose of the study was to establish a profile of coaching efficacy with Hong Kong community coaches who differ in knowledge and hours spent in coaching. Coaching efficacy can be described in four dimensions, namely, Motivation, Strategy, Technique, and Character Building. It was hypothesized that coaches who had spent more time coaching and were more knowledgeable about the sport and coaching would score higher on those four dimensions of a Coaching Efficacy Scale. The scale was administered to 252 coaches working with beginning and district-level athletes in a variety of sports. Analysis suggested that their self-reported efficacy on Strategy was least strong. This means that the coaches were not confident in analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of opposing teams, making decisions on the type of game strategy to employ, and maximizing athletes' strength in competitions. Coaches with less coaching experience were also less confident about motivating athletes. This information on coaching efficacy may be useful in deciding content for a program of education for coaching.     

Psychological Characteristics and Their Development in Olympic Champions

This study was designed to examine psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Ten U.S. Olympic champions (winners of 32 Olympic medals) were interviewed, as were one of their coaches ( n = 10), and a parent, guardian, or significant other ( n = 10). A battery of psychological inventories was also administered to the athletes. It was found that the athletes were characterized by: (a) the ability to cope with and control anxiety; (b) confidence; (c) mental toughness/resiliency; (d) sport intelligence; (e) the ability to focus and block out distractions; (f) competitiveness; (g) a hard-work ethic; (h) the ability to set and achieve goals; (i) coachability; (j) high levels of dispositional hope; (k) optimism; and (l) adaptive perfectionism. Results also revealed that a number of individuals and institutions influenced the athletes' psychological development including the community, family, the individual himself or herself, non-sport personnel, sport environment personnel, and the sport process. Coach and family influences were particularly important. Ways in which these sources influenced the athletes were both direct, like teaching or emphasizing certain psychological lessons, and indirect, involving modeling or unintentionally creating certain psychological environments. Psychological characteristic findings verified current sport psychological research on psychological characteristics associated with peak performance (Williams & Krane, 2001). They also suggest that adaptive perfectionism, dispositional hope, and high levels of optimism are new variables to consider. Results are also discussed relative to Bloom's (1985), Côtè's (1999) and Csikzentmihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, and Wong's (1993) talent development research. Practical implications focus on implementing parenting and coaching practices related to the development of psychological characteristics associated with athletic success.     

Influence of perceived coaching behaviors on burnout and competitive anxiety in female college athletes

Abstract

The focus of this study is on burnout experienced by athletes and coaches, and particularly on how athletes' perceptions of their coach's behavior and communication style may relate to levels of burnout and anxiety experienced by athletes. A modified version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory was used to measure burnout in coaches and the Eades Athletic Burnout Inventory was used to measure six components of burnout in athletes. Three multivariate analyses supported links in the study model. Coach burnout was significantly related to perceived coaching styles/behavior, perceived coaching styles/behavior was predictive of athlete burnout, and athlete anxiety and athlete burnout were significantly related. Interestingly, perceived coaching style/behavior was not a significant predictor of athlete anxiety. The results are discussed in relation to psychometric issues in the measure of bumout and coaching behavior as well as the need for sport psychology researchers to examine burnout from within a social contextual perspective.     

Becoming a Coach in Developmental Adaptive Sailing: A Lifelong Learning Perspective

Life-story methodology and innovative methods were used to explore the process of becoming a developmental adaptive sailing coach. Jarvis's (2009) lifelong learning theory framed the thematic analysis. The findings revealed that the coach, Jenny, was exposed from a young age to collaborative environments. Social interactions with others such as mentors, colleagues, and athletes made major contributions to her coaching knowledge. As Jenny was exposed to a mixture of challenges and learning situations, she advanced from recreational para-swimming instructor to developmental adaptive sailing coach. The conclusions inform future research in disability sport coaching, coach education, and applied sport psychology.     

Effective Ways to Develop and Maintain Robust Sport-Confidence: Strategies Advocated by Sport Psychology Consultants

Based on recent evidence, this study identified 10 strategies advocated by sport psychology consultants as effective at developing and maintaining robust sport-confidence in athletes. Due to the study's exploratory nature, qualitative interviews were conducted and content analyzed. Six themes emerged for developing robust sport-confidence and 4 emerged for maintaining robust sport-confidence. Findings reveal a need to develop an athlete's signature strengths, increase pressure experienced in training, and identify broad stable sources of confidence to develop robust sport-confidence. Consultants reported that maintaining robust sport-confidence occurs through constant development. Theoretical implications and future research directions are discussed.     

Social-contextual and intrapersonal antecedents of coaches' basic need satisfaction: The intervening variable effect of providing autonomy-supportive coaching

ObjectivesBased on Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2012) and in line with Mageau and Vallerand's (2003) motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship, a new model involving antecedents associated with coaches' self-report measure of total need satisfaction (TNS) was tested. This model hypothesized that: (1) coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching would relate positively to coaches' provision of autonomy-supportive coaching (ASC), whereas perception of parental pressure in the youth sport context would relate negatively to coaches' provision of ASC; (2) coaches' provision of ASC towards their athletes would, in turn, relate positively to their self-report measure of TNS; and (3) the relation between coaches' perceptions of the sport context, along with their self-determined motivation for coaching, and coaches' self-report measure of TNS would be mediated by coaches' own provision of ASC.DesignA cross-sectional study.MethodsParticipants were 222 (M_age = 42.3, SD = 6.1) youth soccer coaches.ResultsSEM analyses supported the hypothesized model in which coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching related positively to coaches' self-report measure of TNS through coaches' provision of ASC. In contrast, coaches' perceptions of parental pressure in the youth sport context was unrelated to coaches' self-report measure of TNS via coaches' provision of ASC.ConclusionsFindings support previous research by demonstrating the psychological benefit of providing autonomy support to others.     

Parents’ Reflections on their Child's Experiences of Emotionally Abusive Coaching Practices

The purpose of this study was to explore parents’ reflections on their child's experiences of emotionally abusive coaching practices. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 parents of retired elite athletes, and data were coded using open, axial, and selective coding techniques. Parents’ reflections indicated a process of accepting disconcerting coaching practices across their child's athletic career. Findings are interpreted to suggest that parents are socialized into the culture of elite sport and can become silent bystanders to their children's experiences of emotional abuse. Implications for athlete protection are discussed.     

Youth Athletes' Interpretations of Punitive Coaching Practices

This study examined the use of punitive coaching strategies in youth sport and the nature of these experiences for youth athletes. Semistructured interviews and concept maps were conducted with 12 competitive male and female hockey athletes 11–13 years of age. Data were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. Results revealed that punishments occurred in competitive youth hockey, in the forms of benching, yelling, exercises, cleaning up equipment, and alternating positions. Findings are interpreted to suggest that punishments hindered developmental needs of youth athletes, including a positive sense of self and positive relationships with others. Implications for healthy youth development are discussed.     

Coaching Generation Z Athletes

How Generation Z athletes' (those born after 1996) characteristics influence coaching practice has not been examined. This study examines coaches' perceptions of Gen Z athlete characteristics, challenges, and effective coaching strategies. Twelve highly experienced coaches and sport science providers were interviewed and revealed that coaches characterized Gen Z athletes as having excellent technology skills, high expectations for success, short attention spans, poor communication skills, and an inability to deal with adversity. Challenges included connecting with them and working with their support networks. Strategies included connecting process with performance, teaching communication skills, being direct, setting clear expectations, and building resiliency.

Lay Summary

Coaches' perceptions of Gen Z athletes (athletes born after 1996 and having grown up in a totally digital world) characteristics, the challenges working with them, and effective Gen Z coaching strategies were examined. Interviews with 12 highly experienced tennis coaches revealed both positive (e.g., highly educated, high expectations for success) and negative (e.g., finding ways to connect with them, working with support network) characteristics, as well as strategies for effectively coaching them (e.g., connecting process with performance, teaching basic communication skills).     

Examining links between coaching behaviors and collegiate athletes’ burnout levels using a longitudinal approach

Research on burnout in athletes reveals a range of potential negative effects including decreased performance, compromised physical and psychological well-being, and possible sport withdrawal. The current study was designed to: (a) examine if and how collegiate athletes’ levels of burnout change from the beginning to the end of a competitive season; and (b) determine if there is a predictive link between athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ interpersonal styles and feedback behavior and changes in athletes’ level of burnout. Self-report measures were completed by 126 collegiate female athletes at two time-points. A repeated measures MANOVA revealed a significant time main effect showing increases over the season in two of the three burnout dimensions (reduced accomplishment and sport devaluation). Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that perceived coaching behaviors did explain a significant amount of the variability between athletes in their end of season burnout scores above and beyond that explained by their early season levels and their perceptions of their performance success. These results add to the growing body of literature on the utility of self-determination theory as a framework for examining psychosocial health and well-being in collegiate athletes. In addition, the longitudinal nature of this study provides information regarding potential changes in the dimensions of burnout as a function of time in the season and in response to perceptions of coaches’ behaviors.     

High School Coaches’ Coaching Efficacy: Relationship with Sport Psychology Exposure and Gender Factors

Coaching efficacy (CE) is largely influenced by mastery experiences such as formal education and coaching experience. However, specific education has not previously been considered in relation to CE. Therefore, examining specific educational experiences, such as those related to sport psychology, which have previously been reported to increase self-efficacy, may prove helpful in advancing CE. Also, previously reported gender differences in CE and perceptions of sport psychology advocate for gender consideration. The purpose of this study was to explore high school coaches’ coaching experience to determine whether sport psychology exposure and gender factors relate to CE. Participants (N?=?2,018) completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale II–High School Teams. An analysis of covariance revealed that more sport psychology education and more frequent contact with sport psychology practitioners resulted in statistically higher CE (p < .05). Analysis of covariance indicated that female coaches reported significantly lower CE than males (p < .05), and coaches of only female athletes reported significantly lower motivation efficacy and physical conditioning efficacy than their peer groups (p < .05). Sport psychology consultants and coach educators should consider these differences when consulting and when developing educational materials and workshops.     

The Role of the Coach in Facilitating Positive Youth Development: Moving from Theory to Practice

Sport is suggested as a potentially important and sufficient path for positive youth development. However, how this responsibility is translated by coaching practitioners is not understood. This research investigated whether coaching practitioners desire outcomes for their adolescent athletes that reach beyond on-field success, and incorporate constructs that are associated with positive youth development. Twenty-two participation coaches for adolescent athletes participated in semi-structured interviews. Results suggest that coaches see themselves as responsible for facilitating eight interrelated and interdependent themes that are consistent with the positive youth development literature: competence, confidence, connection, character, life skills, climate, positive affect and, positive psychological capacities.     

Elite athletes and retirement: Identity,choice, and agency

Retirement from elite sport can be highly distressing for athletes, and many report experiencing depression and anxiety in adjusting to this transition. In this article, a discursive psychological approach is employed to explore constructions of choice and identity around elite athletes’ retirements within Australian newsprint media. Within these accounts, three ‘types’ of retirements were identified: retirements occurring in relation to age, injury, or active choice. Retiring with individual agency and at an appropriate time was repeatedly privileged, whereas retiring in different ways was routinely problematised. In privileging particular ways of retiring, certain identity positions were made more accessible than others. Consequently, certain actions and choices are deemed appropriate (or not) for athletes, ultimately constraining decision‐making around retirement. The implications of such limited identity positions and choices are explored in relation to the psychological distress and clinical concerns that emerge among many athletes in the transition out of elite sport.     

Competitive worries, sport confidence, and performance ratings for young swimmers

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among competitive worries, sport confidence, and performance of young athletes. Participants were 143 young swimmers aged 11 to 12 years. The athletes completed trait and state questionnaires (competitive worries and sport confidence) in noncompetitive and competitive conditions, respectively. The results indicated: (a) significant relationships among trait and state characteristics and between trait General Self-confidence and performance ratings in both races as well as between performance ratings in Races 1 and 2; (b) significant differences in state variables among athletes with moderate or high and low scores on the trait variables; (c) significant differences in performance among athletes with moderate or high and low scores on the trait General Self-confidence and trait Positive Thinking in Race 1 and on variables trait General Self-confidence, state General Self confidence, and state Positive Thinking Race 2; and (d) trait General Self-confidence and trait Confidence in Unfavorable Situations were the most important predictors of young swimmers' performances. These results may be useful in application to competitive sports for young athletes. They may help in psychodiagnostic procedures and may be used for both the content and the direction of individual programs for psychological preparation of young athletes.     

Coaches' assessment of their coaching efficacy compared to athletes' perceptions

This study compared coaches' assessments of their own coaching efficacy with their athletes' perceptions of the coaches' efficacy. Coaching efficacy was measured with the Coaching Efficacy Scale. Participants were 9 football coaches and 76 football players from the same team. Analysis indicated coaches were confident in their coaching abilities (range 6.5 to 9.0 on a 9-point scale). For 7 of the 9 coaches the coaches' ratings of themselves were higher than the athletes' ratings. For the other 2 coaches, athletes' ratings of coaches' efficacy were higher than the coaches' ratings of themselves. All coaches' ratings fell within the 95% confidence interval based on the athletes' ratings of the coaches' efficacy. Results are discussed in terms of the interplay between athletes and coaches efficacy beliefs and its influence on behavior.