Experience,Effectiveness, and Perceptions Toward Sport Psychology Consultants: A Critical Review of Peer-Reviewed Articles

The first scientific papers on sport psychology consultants (SPCs) focused primarily on the professional practice of experienced SPCs. Since then, the scientific literature on SPCs has greatly diversified. The purpose of this review is to summarize and critically examine the findings of three scientifically studied topics on SPCs: SPCs' experiences, perceptions toward SPCs, and SPCs' effectiveness. Peer-reviewed scientific articles published in English were found in the main sport and psychology databases. The primary results in relation to each topic and the limitations of these papers are presented. The discussion examines future avenues from which to develop research on SPCs.     

An Introduction to Sports Concussion for the Sport Psychology Consultant

This paper was designed to introduce the sport psychology consultant (SPC) to the relevant practical and theoretical information pertaining to sports concussion. The paper discusses four key areas related to sports concussion: 1) recognition, 2) management, 3) psychological issues following a concussion, and 4) prevention and education. Throughout the paper, the authors emphasize the role of the SPC in each of these four areas. An integrated review of the sport concussion literature and current research and guidelines regarding the definition, pathophysiology, symptoms, neuropsychological testing, and risk factors for concussion is presented. The SPC's roles in educating and helping athletes deal with post-concussion issues such as the pressure to return to play and fear of reinjury are examined. The authors highlight the need for baseline neuropsychological testing of athletes; and advocate a multidimensional team approach to sport concussion, involving the SPC as a key member of that team.     

Tracking the Training and Careers of Graduates of Advanced Degree Programs in Sport Psychology, 1994 to 1999

Responses from 87 graduate programs identified 814 graduates (master's degree, n = 618; doctoral degree, n =196) who received degrees from 1994 to 1999 with some type of emphasis in sport psychology (SP). Doctoral (n = 107) and master's (n = 147) graduates completed a survey that identified their demographics, educational background, current positions, incomes, career goals, and SP consulting aspirations and work. Most of the doctoral graduates (73%) found positions in academia/research. Almost half the master's graduates had SP-related jobs and most of the rest had jobs related to the discipline that housed their degree. Compared to 1989 to 1994 graduates (Andersen, Williams, Aldridge, &Taylor, 1997), the present graduates perceived more fulfillment of initial career goals, greater satisfaction with SP work, less frustration over SP career progress, greater ease in finding paid SP consulting work, and more confidence in fulfilling future career goals. Doctoral graduates with athlete consulting career goals had less training than the Andersen et al. graduates. The findings provide some guidance for current and prospective students regarding graduate training and career opportunities.     

Exploring the Role of Sport Sense of Community in Perceived Athlete Burnout,Sport Motivation,and Engagement

The main purpose of this work was to examine the relationships between the sport sense of community, athlete burnout, engagement, and motivation in adolescent athletes, adopting a longitudinal perspective, and using both person- and variable-centred approaches. A total of 250 adolescent athletes were involved in the study. Athletes' perceptions of burnout, engagement and motivation significantly differed across two different clusters: high and low sport sense of community profiles. Consistent with our hypothesis, sport sense of community dimensions (i.e., satisfaction of needs and influence) negatively predicted athlete burnout and controlled motivation, and positively predicted engagement and autonomous motivation six months later.

Lay Summary: Athlete burnout is associated with negative consequences for athletes’ well-being, whereas engagement reflects a positive state. The sport sense of community refers to the athletes’ relationship with their sport environment. In this study, we provided preliminary evidence of the protective role of the sport sense of community on athlete burnout.     

The 5C’s Model of Successful Partnerships in Elite Beach Volleyball Dyads

An athlete–athlete partnership is a form of athletic dyad in which both members equally share power and responsibility. Although research on the coach–athlete relationship is prevalent, research on the unique interpersonal dynamics of athlete–athlete partnerships in elite sport is sparse, particularly in beach volleyball. The purpose of the present study was to explore the interpersonal components of successful, elite athlete–athlete beach volleyball partnerships through the lens of interdependence theory and Jowett and colleagues’ 3?+?1C’s theory of coach–athlete relationships. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was applied to semistructured interviews with four Olympic-level beach volleyball players (3 male, 1 female). Results revealed 5 higher order themes: (a) compatibility, (b) commitment, (c) complementarity, (d) coorientation, and (e) closeness, which became the key constructs in the proposed 5C’s model of the successful athlete–athlete partnership. Interpersonal awareness, interpersonal maturation, and context were identified as 3 overarching meta-themes, whereas interdependence connected all interpersonal components. For example, in consultation, increasing athlete individual and interpersonal awareness (e.g., in the areas of personal and dyadic philosophy, personal and shared values, and individual and dyadic coping) requires careful contextualization and thoughtful implementation. Future studies need to examine diverse samples of athlete–athlete dyads to advance interpersonal theory in sport and add to emerging theories of performance behavior and expertise in sport.

Lay Summary: Successful beach volleyball partnerships share a philosophy and commitment to their sport. Desired partners are supportive and adaptive, are compatible, depend on one another, and continually appraise and reflect on their relationship to grow as individuals and as teammates.     

Congruence of efficacy beliefs on the coach-athlete relationship and athlete anxiety: Athlete self-efficacy and coach estimation of athlete self-efficacy

This study’s purpose was to assess the extent to which congruence of athlete self-efficacy and Coach Estimation of Athlete Self-Efficacy (CEASE) is associated with coach-athlete relationship quality and athlete anxiety. Data were obtained from 71 British coach-athlete dyads from individual sports regarding athlete self-efficacy, CEASE, coach-athlete relationship quality, and athlete anxiety. Polynomial regression analyses were conducted to assess congruence, with significant interactions depicted in surface response graphs. Athlete self-efficacy was significant in predicting athlete perceptions of relationship quality and CEASE was significant in predicting coach perceptions of relationship quality, but neither directly predicted the other person’s relationship perceptions. Congruence (of athlete self-efficacy and CEASE) was significant in predicting athlete, but not coach, perceptions of relationship quality. Athlete anxiety was not significantly predicted. Overall, results from the study suggest that the coach-athlete relationship is enhanced when coaches and athletes have congruent perceptions of efficacy, with more cooperative and effective interactions resulting from congruence at high and low efficacy.     

A School Psychologist's Self-Study Guide to Sport Psychology

SUMMARY

School psychologists may find the field of sport psychology beneficial to them in extending their skills and effectiveness. As trained psychologists, they are likely to already have some of the knowledge and skills necessary for working in the area of sport psychology. However, without additional training, this may not be sufficient for ethical and effective practice. This article enumerates the necessary knowledge and skills for working in sport psychology according to APA's recent proficiency standards. It then details a plethora of available resources and methods for entering into the domain of sport psychology. The article emphasizes self-study while continuing to practice ethically within the ‘boundaries of one's competence.’     

Male and Female Athletes' and Nonathletes' Expectations about Sport Psychology Consulting

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore expectations of athletes and nonathletes about sport psychology consulting. Tinsley's (1982) Expectations About Coun-seling-Brief form was revised using sport psychology terms. The revised instrument, Expectations About Sport Psychology Consulting (EASPC) questionnaire, was administered to 111 athletes (64 male and 47 female) and 166 nonathletes (72 male and 94 female) attending an NCAA Division I university. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the data fit the hypothesized 3-factor model (i.e., personal commitment, facilitative conditions, and consultant expertise). A 2 (College Sport Participation) 2 (Gender) MANOVA and follow-up discriminant function analyses revealed that females had higher expectancies of personal commitment than did males whereas males believed that consultants were more directive and more capable of solving problems quickly than did females. No significant differences were obtained between athletes and their peers. The results indicate that the EASPC instrument might be a valuable tool for determining expectations about sport psychology consulting.     

Happy Temperament? Four Types of Stimulation Control Linked to Four Types of Subjective Well-Being

In this person-oriented study 722 adolescents and adults filled out formal characteristics of behaviour—temperament inventory, satisfaction with life scale and positive and negative affect schedule. Using k-means clustering we assigned them to four subjective well-being (SWB) types: (1) achievers—high satisfaction, positive affective balance; (2) aspirers—low satisfaction, positive affective balance; (3) resigners—high satisfaction, negative affective balance; (4) frustrated—low satisfaction, negative affective balance; and to four temperament types denoting patterns of stimulation control (1) sanguine: high stimulation processing capacity (SPC) and high stimulation supply (StS); (2) melancholic: low SPC, low StS; (3) phlegmatic: high SPC, low StS; (4) choleric: low SPC, high StS. We compared stimulation control dimensions between SWB types and compared counts of SWB types across four profiles of temperament. SPC and StS were highest among achievers and lowest among the Frustrated, with aspirers and resigners in between. We found a clear correspondence between well-being structures and temperament types (a) the most common temperament among achievers was the sanguine, suggesting that this is the ‘happy temperament’, (b) among the Frustrated it was the melancholic (the ‘unhappy temperament’), (c) among resigners it was the choleric, suggesting that this ‘overstimulated temperament’ results in high satisfaction at the cost of lower affective balance, (d) among aspirers it was the Phlegmatic, suggesting that ‘understimulated temperament’, results in a good affective balance but lower satisfaction. Configurations of temperament dimensions within individuals affect the whole structure of SWB and can explain incongruence between cognitive and affective components of SWB.     

An Exploration of Coaching Research in Journal of Applied Sport Psychology from 1989 to 2017

This article seeks to examine the treatment of coaching research within Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (JASP) and, specifically, to explore whether the Association for Applied Sport Psychology’s mission in recognizing the coach as a performing “other” is being adopted in the field. The study followed a 3-phase design. In Phase 1, an exhaustive search was conducted to identify all coach-related research published in JASP from 1989 to 2017. Phase 2 consisted of accessing the 101 identified articles from a total of 690 articles that had been published in JASP during the review period. In Phase 3, articles were categorized into the multidisciplinary sport and exercise psychology (M-SEP) and contemporary multidisciplinary sport and exercise psychology (C-SEP) periods, and analysis of the articles was completed. Main results indicated that articles that focused on coach perceptions about different topics related primarily to SEP decreased in focus from 40% in the M-SEP period to 23% in the C-SEP period. A prominent focus in both periods was the impact of coaches (often interpersonal behaviors) on their athletes’ performance (M-SEP?=?35%, C-SEP?=?46%). A coach performance focus was coded in only 10% of articles in both periods. Articles decreased in their explicit discussion of how research applied to consulting from 60% to 44% across periods. The findings suggest that currently the literature in JASP does not directly provide SEP professionals with effective knowledge application for working with coaches as a performer within the sport context. This review emphasizes the lack of research positioning of coach as a performing “other” within JASP and may increase awareness of viewing the coach as a performer within the field of applied sport psychology.

Lay Summary: This study was a review of research articles published within the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (JASP) between 1989 and 2017. Only research with a main focus in coaching was included in the review. A multiple-step process was used to examine the articles and pinpoint the type of research about coaches that was being published in JASP. Results showed a large focus on how coaches contribute to their athletes’ performance, however, a lack of research examining aspects of the coach themselves and how they might enhance their own performance as a coach.     

High School and College Athletes' Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Consulting

The purpose of the present study was to explore attitudes about sport psychology consulting of high school and college athletes living in the United States. The Sport Psychology Attitudes–Revised form (SPA-R; Martin, Kellmann, Lavallee, & Page, 2002 Martin, S. B., Kellmann, M., Lavallee, D. and Page, S. 2002. Development and psychometric evaluation of the Sport Psychology Attitudes–Revised form: A multiple group investigation. The Sport P, 16: 272–290. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) was administered to 362 high school and 431 college athletes. A 2 (Gender) × 2 (Age Group: High School and College) × 2 (Type of Sport: Physical Contact and Physical Non-contact) MANCOVA was conducted with past sport psychology consulting experience as a covariate and attitudes about sport psychology as dependent variables. Follow-up univariate and discriminant function analyses were then performed to identify the attitudes that maximized differences related to gender, age group and type of sport. Results revealed that male athletes, younger athletes and athletes who have been socialized in sports that involve physical contact may have a stigma toward seeking sport psychology consulting. Sport psychology consultants must be sensitive to how personal characteristics, experience and attitudes influence help-seeking to improve the services they offer.     

EPILOGUE A Commentary and Reflection on Sport Psychology in the Discipline of Sports Coaching

In this epilogue to the special issue of Journal of Applied Sport Psychology on the psychology of sports coaching, we provide a brief commentary on the field of sports coaching and some reflections on three key themes emerging from the research presented within the issue. In drawing our reflections together, we offer recommendations for the future directions of both research and practice in the area, namely: (a) coach effectiveness; (b) relationships within coaching; and (c) wider coach psychology research considerations.     

The Value of Strength-Based Approaches in SERE and Sport Psychology

During the past 2 decades, the psychosocial landscapes of the military and elite sport have drastically changed, with the presence of stress an increasing health and safety concern. For example, in modern warfare, fighters must have the psychological capabilities to counter terrorism and undertake extended deployments in extreme environments against enemies with increasing skills for rapid development and dissemination of information and weaponry via global communication networks. In sport, performers have also reported being affected by globalization, reporting a hazardous array of stressors (e.g., roles, relationships, development issues, and organizational structure and climate) associated with preparation for and performance at major international competitions. The result of such developments is the need for leaders in both the military and sport to better understand optimal performance, and in particular the preparation of their charges, the war fighter and athlete, for the demands of their respective competition arenas. Therefore, in this narrative review we identify strength-based concepts of common interest and potential knowledge transfer in the study of psychology of excellence in the face of adversity between sport and military domains. Specifically, we highlight a value of 6 strength-based concepts for elite performance environments in sport (i.e., Olympic performance) and the military (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Extraction: SERE); mental toughness, positive emotion, learned optimism, resilience, posttraumatic growth, and self- and emotion regulation. In line with this discussion we highlight commonalities and knowledge transfer considerations regarding interventions in these spheres of psychological practice, the potential value of humanism and existentialism, the importance of post career and rehabilitation intervention, and readiness to change and engagement in training.     

A Preliminary Investigation into the Use of Humor in Sport Psychology Practice

“Creative efforts,” such as the use of humor, have been found to be beneficial to the nurse–patient, teacher–student, and psychologist–patient alliance. Potentially humor use might benefit the working alliance in applied sport psychology, yet to date there is limited research. Sport psychology consultants (n?=?55) completed an online survey that explored humor use within their practice. Statistical analyses revealed that most participants used humor for adaptive purposes such as to facilitate the working alliance, reinforce knowledge, and create healthy learning environments. Therefore, possible client change is likely to be facilitated by practitioners’ personal qualities and skills such as humor use and humor style. Recommendations are made for sport psychology practitioners in relation to humor use and further research. Increasing recognition has been given to the importance of the professional relationship between the client and practitioner within sport psychology consultancy as a means of facilitating client change. The present study demonstrated that use of humor by practitioners is an important part of enhancing the professional relationship and therefore potentially client change.

Lay Summary: Increasing recognition has been given to the importance of the professional relationship between the client and practitioner within sport psychology consultancy as a means of facilitating client change. The present study demonstrated that use of humor by practitioners is an important part of enhancing the professional relationship, and therefore potentially client change.     

Should They Be Recruited? Fan Perceptions of Deviant Student-Athletes

The purpose of this study was to examine fan opinion toward the active recruitment of prospective student-athletes with deviant pasts. College football fans were surveyed to determine to what extent the deviant behavior of a prospective student-athlete impacted how much they would support their favorite team recruiting that athlete. There were three primary findings: (a) deviant behavior negatively impacts a prospective student-athlete’s fan support score, (b) assault of a female student is the most severe deviant behavior in which an athlete could engage, and (c) White recruits were judged more harshly for using illegal drugs when compared to Black recruits.     

Understanding and building clean(er) sport together: Community-based participatory research with elite athletes and anti-doping organisations from five European countries

BackgroundIn sport the narrative is changing from anti-doping to pro-clean sport. Yet, our understanding of what ‘clean sport’ means to athletes is notably absent from the literature.ObjectivesWorking together with elite athletes and National Anti-Doping Organisations (NADOs), this study explored the meaning and importance of ‘clean sport’ and ‘clean athlete identity’.DesignCommunity-based participatory research design was employed to explore (a) how elite athletes define clean sport and being a clean athlete; (b) the hopes and challenges associated with clean sport and being a clean athlete; and (c) what can be done in anti-doping to elicit clean sport.MethodsFive elite athletes in five European countries (Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Slovenia and United Kingdom) were recruited as co-researchers by their respective NADOs, trained for their role as co-researchers and individually interviewed. Seventy-seven elite athletes were then purposefully recruited for 12 athlete-led national focus groups. Finally, the five athlete co-researchers and five athlete participants took part in one 2.5-h long international focus group.ResultsReflexive thematic analysis resulted in generating four overarching themes: ‘clean is being true to the self’, ‘clean performance enhancement has multiple meanings’, ‘clean is not a solo act’ and ‘the problems and solutions are systemic’. Collectively, the themes showed that the clean athlete identity is generally rooted in upbringing, early experiences and love of sport; and characterised by continued, intrinsically motivated commitment to fundamental values and morals acquired in childhood. In contrast, the concept of clean performance-enhancement is highly idiosyncratic and flexible. Elite athletes value anti-doping efforts but their experiences of disparity and unfairness in doping control undermine their trust in anti-doping.ConclusionClean athlete identity is a social endeavour and artefact, which needs to be reflected in and developed through evidence-informed anti-doping interventions. Raising athletes' voices via collaboration and participatory research can be an enriching experience for athletes and researchers alike, and a worthwhile endeavour for sport organisations with responsibility for anti-doping. To make anti-doping education personally relevant, the richness of individual interpretation of ‘clean’ for the self (i.e., clean athlete identity) and performance-enhancement must be acknowledged, respected and cultivated.     

Skating through pregnancy and motherhood: A narrative analysis of digital stories of elite figure skating expectant mothers

ObjectivesAlthough research on elite sport and motherhood is growing, more research is needed to understand the narratives that shape their identities and lives. We sought to build on sport psychology research centralizing the media as naturalistic data resources to explore elite athlete mother identity in cultural context. The specific aim was to explore how elite athlete identities are portrayed during pregnancy on Instagram.DesignTwo high profile elite figure skating expectant mothers’ (i.e., Meagan Duhamel and Aljona Savchenko) Instagram posts were the focus of a dialogical narrative analysis (DNA) grounded in relativist narrative inquiry. Two research questions were explored: 1. how do expectant athlete mothers portray themselves in big and small stories, and 2. what are the implications (e.g., psychosocial, behavioural) of identity meanings portrayed in digital stories?ResultsDNA of 122 posts (n = 82 for Duhamel, n = 40 for Savchenko) identified a key big story: (re)configuring ideal pregnancy. Four small stories fed into fluid meanings of ‘ideal pregnancy’ and ways of ‘doing pregnancy’ linked to self-identity portrayals: documenting the growing life, baby bumps on display, Olympic dreams/journeys and living the good life through leisure. Consumerism was shown to thread small stories. These findings show contradictions of motherhood meanings and body ideals (e.g., feminine, athletic) vs realities (e.g., tired, sore), linked to actions (e.g., skating during pregnancy, promoting products or athlete brand), in good mother and biomedical narratives.ConclusionsA big and small story approach grounded in narrative inquiry holds value to learn more about the digital landscape’s role in shaping athlete expectant mother self-identities. Future research exploring social media (e.g., Twitter, Facebook) may expand intertextual understanding of athlete mothers' identities and lives.     

Perspectives of Women College Athletes on Sport and Gender

Although sport access for females has greatly improved, certain behaviors continue to be considered more or less appropriate for females depending upon how compatible they are with biologically or socially constructed female characteristics. However, young women who have grown up playing sports and continue participation at the college level have constructed meanings about being a young woman and an athlete. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed to investigate how seven gymnasts and seven softball players competing in NCAA Division I athletics view and contend with a “female/athlete paradox.” These women recognized preferred femininity and at times constructed images based on this notion. However, they also embraced their athleticism and felt at ease choosing not to perform femininity in some contexts.     

High School Coaches’ Coaching Efficacy: Relationship with Sport Psychology Exposure and Gender Factors

Coaching efficacy (CE) is largely influenced by mastery experiences such as formal education and coaching experience. However, specific education has not previously been considered in relation to CE. Therefore, examining specific educational experiences, such as those related to sport psychology, which have previously been reported to increase self-efficacy, may prove helpful in advancing CE. Also, previously reported gender differences in CE and perceptions of sport psychology advocate for gender consideration. The purpose of this study was to explore high school coaches’ coaching experience to determine whether sport psychology exposure and gender factors relate to CE. Participants (N?=?2,018) completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale II–High School Teams. An analysis of covariance revealed that more sport psychology education and more frequent contact with sport psychology practitioners resulted in statistically higher CE (p < .05). Analysis of covariance indicated that female coaches reported significantly lower CE than males (p < .05), and coaches of only female athletes reported significantly lower motivation efficacy and physical conditioning efficacy than their peer groups (p < .05). Sport psychology consultants and coach educators should consider these differences when consulting and when developing educational materials and workshops.