The Development and Maintenance of Expert Athletic Performance: Perceptions of World and Olympic Champions

This study examined the factors that contributed to the development and maintenance of expert athletic performance. Four men and six women having won at least two gold medals at separate Olympics and/or World Championships were interviewed using an in-depth, open-ended, and semi-structured approach (Patton, 1987). The qualitative data were analyzed both inductively and deductively. Results revealed that the athletes progressed through four stages throughout their career: the Sampling, Specializing, Investment, and Maintenance Years. Common findings were that at an elite level, contextual factors included parents, coaches, teammates/ friends, support staff, other athletes, and school/education. Personal characteristics pertained to self-confidence, motivation, creativity, and perseverance. Training involved technical, tactical, physical, and mental components and was influenced by quantity, quality, intensity, and recovery. Competition factors concerned meticulous planning, evaluations, dealing with pressure, expectations, and adversity, and focusing on the process rather than the outcome of events. Implications to increase the quality of experience of athletes are discussed.     

Work Organization, Work Characteristics, and Their Psychological Effects on Nurses in the Netherlands

The aim of the current study was to examine relationships between organizational characteristics, work characteristics, and psychological work reactions in nursing work. We used several theoretical frameworks to select our research variables. In line with the contingency and sociotechnical system approaches, we selected complexity, uncertainty, and decision authority to represent the organizational characteristics. As to the work characteristics, we selected the variables of the Demand–Control–Support model (autonomy, social support, workload), role conflict, and role ambiguity. In order to measure the psychological work reactions, burnout, psychosomatic health complaints, job satisfaction, and intrinsic work motivation were assessed in questionnaires distributed to 1,855 nurses working in general hospitals in the Netherlands. Using correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the main results showed that high decision authority predicted high social support andhigh autonomy. High decision authority predicted high job satisfaction and high intrinsic work motivation. Finally, high complexity was indirectly predictive for high burnout. Workload operated as a mediator variable in this relationship.     

权力的三种心理机制及其影响

权力指控制有价值资源及他人行为结果的相对能力。心理学研究发现,权力不仅是等级制度的核心概念,一种结构变量、社会关系的基础属性,还是一种心理属性,即知觉到自己有能力影响他人的一种心理状态。这一发现促使研究者愈发关注权力效应背后的心理机制。本文在分别综述了权力效应三种心理机制（趋近系统激活、心理距离增加、诱发控制错觉）的基础上,详细分析总结了各心理机制及其影响与拥有权力的人（以下简称掌权者）的认知、动机、情绪乃至判断、决策、行为间的关系,并尝试阐述了各心理机制及其影响与促进集体利益繁荣这一权力产生初衷之间的关系。最后,根据研究现状,就权力各心理机制间的关系、心理机制如何运作、文化与心理机制间的关系等问题进行了讨论。     

初中生人格类型划分及人格类型发展特点研究

目的：划分初中生人格类型及考察初中生人格类型的年级与性别特点。方法：本研究使用初中生人格发展自我评定量表对某地区3602名初中生被试施测,使用潜在类别分析对初中生人格类型进行划分,使用无序多分变量的Logistic回归考察初中生人格类型的年级与性别特点。结果：依据人格类型划分的相关理论和潜在类别分析的拟合指数,初中生可划分为低控型,过度控制型和适应型三种人格类型,其中适应型人数占大多数。方差分析结果表明适应型在初中生人格五维度得分均显著高于另两类;过度控制型有低情绪稳定性和低外倾性,同时有中等程度的亲社会性、智能特征和认真自控水平,低控型人格类型在大部分人格维度得分均较低。随年级增长,初中生适应型人数比例有显著下降趋势,过度控制型和低控型比例有所上升。性别差异方面,女生人格类型的适应型人数比例显著高于男生,过度控制型和低控型比例则显著低于男生。结论：依据自我控制和自我适应理论,初中生三种人格类型的划分得到重复验证,人格类型有显著的年级和性别特点。     

目标内容效应及其心理机制

以自我决定论为基础的目标内容理论认为,内部目标是指反映个体的内在成长趋向的目标,如自我接受、亲密关系、健康等;外部目标是指如何获得外部奖赏或社会赞许,通过获得外部的价值给别人留下深刻的印象等目标,如财富、权力、地位等。大量的研究表明内、外部目标有着不同的效应,而基本心理需要（关系、胜任、自主）是被证实的能解释内、外部目标内容效应的心理机制。在未来的研究中除了更深入地去探讨其心理机制之外,还要积极进行本土化的实证研究     

心理学常用效应量的选用与分析

效应量在量化方面弥补了零假设检验的不足。除了报告检验结果外, 许多期刊还要求在研究报告中包括效应量。效应量可以分为三大类别：差异类、相关类和组重叠类, 它们在不同的研究设计(如单因素和多因素被试间、被试内和混合实验设计)或在不同的数据条件下(如小样本、方差异质等)可能有不同的计算方法和用法, 但许多效应量可以相互转换。我们梳理出一个表格有助应用工作者根据研究目的和研究类型选用合适的效应量。     

Spiritual Maturity in Psychological Development

SUMMARY

A review of data from an international survey of life satisfaction in 13 countries indicates that acceptance of the conditions of life increases with age. In relation to religious orientation, in all countries women expressed more adherence to the belief systems of the country than did men. This paper raises the question of change in orientation in the latter portion of life, from a logical analytical perspective to a more subjective one. The search for meaning in the later years would thus appear to have a different focus than for persons in the work years of life.     

The Psychological Well-Being of Women in Their Middle Years

In summary, educated, married women in their fifties generally appear to be happy regardless of their employment status, age, so-cioeconomic status, educational level, husband's attitude, life stressors, and menopausal symptoms. The empty nest transition does not seem to be anything near a universal problem for well-educated middle-aged women. It may, however, act as a "trigger event" for women with other significant problems, just as illness or retirement might trigger distress in some women. The empty nest transition does appear to be very important to women, but it seems that coping ability may be predictive of who will successfully deal with the adjustment. One implication of this finding for psychologists dealing with women in this stage is to teach general coping skills and apply them to specific problem areas relevant to this life stage such as empty nest, career decisions, retirement planning, health care, religion, recreation, and financial security.     

Specific Phobia in Youth: Phenomenology and Psychological Characteristics

Sociodemographic and psychological characteristics of 62 youth with animal and natural environment types of specific phobia were examined in a treatment-seeking sample. Differences due to age, sex, ethnicity, family structure, and family socioeconomic status were not found between youth with the two types of specific phobia. Moreover, differences were not obtained between the two groups in the clinical severity of their phobias, the perceived dangerousness of the feared outcomes associated with their phobias, the perceived levels of coping with their phobias, or overall fearfulness. However, differences between youth with the two types of specific phobias were found on somatic/anxious symptoms, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction. In addition, differences were noted on withdrawn, somatic complaints, anxious/depressed symptoms, and social problems as reported by the mothers of these youngsters. Finally, differences in the percent of co-occurring anxiety disorders between youth with the two types of specific phobia were found. On all of the domains in which differences were found, youth with the natural environment type fared more poorly than those with the animal type. These findings converge with those obtained in treatment studies which indicate that youth with the natural environment type are more difficult to treat than youth with the animal type.     

问题彩民的购彩心理与行为特征

问题彩民是指因购买彩票而对个人、家庭、组织及社会层面产生不良影响的一类彩民。问题彩民购彩心理与行为特征的研究主要包括人口学变量、购彩心理特征、购彩行为特征以及干预措施等方面。未来的研究应注意建构问题彩民购彩意向影响因素模型、采用跟踪调查和个案研究、探究问题彩民神经生理机制以及加强对问题彩民的干预研究。     

Maternal Identity Among Motherless Mothers and Psychological Symptoms in Their Firstborn Children

A variety of detrimental effects are associated with early parental loss. We examined the relationship between childhood maternal loss and maternal identity among 30 motherless mothers and their 26 matched controls, as well as the psychological health of their firstborns. Motherless mothers reported significantly lower maternal identity. However, firstborns of motherless mothers were no more likely to display psychological symptoms than firstborns of comparison mothers. The findings suggest that early maternal loss may not present risk for cross-generational effects.     

Moses and Oedipus: Psychological Perspectives on Their Life Stories

The present paper compares the chronicles of Moses and Oedipus, examining six life events: birth, exile, submission/resistance to the Divine, trial of passage, seeming failure and success, and reversal of fortune. The biblical conception of Providence is contrasted with the Greek sense of Fate.     

3~6年级小学生心理素质发展的现状与特点

了解小学生心理素质发展的现状与特点,对探索学生心理素质形成与发展机制,提升学生核心素养,具有重要的理论与实践价值.采用《小学生心理素质问卷(简化版)》对全国7017名3~6年级小学生进行分层抽样调查,结果表明:小学生心理素质整体表现出积极向上的发展态势,但各维度的发展不均衡;小学生心理素质发展表现出明显的地区差异;女生、城市生源、独生子女、学生干部分别好于男生、农村生源、非独生子女和普通学生;小学生心理素质发展水平随年级增加而提高,与父母受教育水平显著正相关.     

Mothers' Psychological Adjustment Following Disaster Affecting Their Children

The authors investigated the psychological adjustment of 37 British women whose adolescent children survived the cruise ship Jupiter's sinking in 1988, about 6 years previously. They compared these women with a group of widows (N = 18) and a group of women who had suffered no major negative life event (N = 15). Psychological adjustment of the 37 women was assessed with the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia Lifetime Version (SADS-L; R. L. Spitzer & J. Endicott, 1975) and various standard questionnaires. The women whose children had been involved in the disaster were found to have suffered a greater number of incidents of psychological distress in the period since the disaster than the women who had suffered no major negative life events but fewer incidents of psychological distress than the widows. The significance of these findings and clinical implications are discussed.     

注意网络间的关系及其心理与生理机制

Posner和Petersen把注意系统分为警觉、定向和执行控制三个网络。注意网络测验及其变式是研究注意网络间关系的主要工具。生物化学、神经影像和行为研究从神经递质广泛调节、脑功能区共享、注意资源竞争和认知策略调节的角度证明了三个注意网络之间既相互独立又有机统一的关系。测量信度低、定义模糊成为注意网络及其关系的研究中亟待解决的问题。将来的研究需要改进测量工具, 并考虑注意网络的子成分对网络间关系的影响。     

Positive and Negative Androgyny and Their Relationship with Psychological Health and Well-Being

A new method of scoring the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire (EPAQ) was used to assess the constructs of positive and negative androgyny. The EPAQ was administered to 196 adult women and men; their responses were categorized into a differentiated androgyny. Significant differences were obtained between positive and negative androgynous people as well as between positive and negative feminine and positive and negative masculine people on a set of measures of psychological health and well-being. These findings support the validity and utility of differentiating androgyny into positive and negative categories of gender role identity.     

金钱对幸福感的影响及其心理机制

传统经济学家认为,更多的收入会导致更高的幸福水平。心理学家在这个问题上则显得谨慎一些,他们从多个方面考察了金钱与幸福感之间的关系,并从中得出了一些引人深思的结论。研究表明,金钱能够通过人格、目标、动机、社会比较、适应与压力等中介变量对幸福感产生影响。未来研究应该在研究对象和方法上加以改进,在心理机制方面进行更深入的探讨。此外,本土化研究在我国有着重要的现实意义,有待于加强     

Parental Reactions to Their Child's Psychological Evaluation Findings Conference

ABSTRACT

While school psychological practice continues to be dominated by assessment activities, the post-assessment conference with the evaluated child's parents has been neglected by researchers. This study sought to determine the possible relationships between parental recall of findings with background variables and collected parent/psychologist's post-assessment conference ratings of persuasiveness and satisfaction. How accurately parents recall evaluation findings was not found to be significantly related to child or parental background variables (e.g., socioeconomic status), further supporting the value of post-assessment conferences for a diverse parent population. However, a link between parental recall of findings and parent/ psychologist's conference ratings was not established. Given the importance of post-assessment conferences, future studies investigating these complex parent and psychologist meetings are clearly needed.     

Motivational Factors in the Perception of Psychological Situation Characteristics

This article seeks to formulate how motivational factors underlie and contribute to situation perceptions. Specifically, it is proposed that situation perceptions, to a large extent, capture subjectively perceived “motivational presses”, consisting of motivational processes (What happens to one's needs and goals in the situation?) and motivational content (Which needs or goals does the situation concern?). Additionally, such a motivational perspective can be fruitfully equipped with evolutionary psychological theories on human (social) motives. Thus, it is argued that situation perception contains evolutionarily important information on motivational processes and content. An evolutionarily informed motivational perspective on situation perception is applied to the recently proposed Situational Eight DIAMONDS situation characteristics to provide them with a theoretical underpinning. Ultimately, such a framework can be used to better understand situations and person–situation transactions (i.e., how people experience and shape situations in daily life) that can impact well‐being, health, and personality development.     

Distinct Psychological Characteristics Predict Resilience and Recovery Throughout Widowhood

The dual-process model proposes that early and later bereavement involves different types of stressors and adaptation processes (Stroebe & Schut, 1999, 2010). It is thus possible that different factors facilitate adaptation during the early months versus subsequent years following widowhood. Elevated depressive symptoms, though prevalent after widowhood, may indicate problematic adaptation, as they are associated with poor long-term physical and mental health outcomes. We predicted that neutral death acceptance would be associated with less increase in depression during early widowhood (when confronted with loss-oriented stressors), whereas perceived control would predict depressive symptom decline during later widowhood (when adapting to controllable restoration-oriented stressors). Older adults (N = 265) reported on neutral death acceptance, perceived control, and depression before widowhood and on depression 0.5, 1.5, and 4.0 years after the death of their spouse. Bilinear spline growth modeling revealed that, on average, depressive symptoms increased from before to 0.5 years after spouse death and fell from 0.5 to 4.0 years after spouse death. Neutral death acceptance predicted a smaller increase in depression from before to 0.5 years after spouse death, as well as a smaller subsequent decrease in depression from 0.5 to 4.0 years after spouse death. Perceived control predicted a larger decrease in depression from 0.5 to 4.0 years after spouse death. Neutral death acceptance and perceived control had unique associations with resilience and recovery throughout early and later widowhood. These variables may be fruitful targets in interventions for depression throughout the full course of widowhood.