The effects of team strategic orientation on team process and information search

We tested the effects of team strategic orientation on team member perceptions, work strategy and information search. In Experiment 1, 80 teams worked on a hidden profile decision-making task. A defensive team strategic orientation increased members’ perceptions of the problem’s scope, leading to a more process-focused work strategy and broader information search compared to an offensive team strategic orientation. When teams needed critical information from the environment, defensive teams outperformed offensive teams; offensive teams performed better when critical information resided within the team. In Experiment 2, these findings were replicated with 92 teams performing a different decision task. When making a second decision, half of the teams were led to change their strategic orientation; teams shifting from offense to defense altered their information search behavior more readily than did teams shifting in the opposite direction, suggesting an asymmetric adaptation effect.     

Identifying individuality and variability in team tactics by means of statistical shape analysis and multilayer perceptrons

Offensive and defensive systems of play represent important aspects of team sports. They include the players' positions at certain situations during a match, i.e., when players have to be on specific positions on the court. Patterns of play emerge based on the formations of the players on the court. Recognition of these patterns is important to react adequately and to adjust own strategies to the opponent. Furthermore, the ability to apply variable patterns of play seems to be promising since they make it harder for the opponent to adjust. The purpose of this study is to identify different team tactical patterns in volleyball and to analyze differences in variability. Overall 120 standard situations of six national teams in women's volleyball are analyzed during a world championship tournament. Twenty situations from each national team are chosen, including the base defence position (start configuration) and the two players block with middle back deep (end configuration). The shapes of the defence formations at the start and end configurations during the defence of each national team as well as the variability of these defence formations are statistically analyzed. Furthermore these shapes data are used to train multilayer perceptrons in order to test whether artificial neural networks can recognize the teams by their tactical patterns. Results show significant differences between the national teams in both the base defence position at the start and the two players block with middle back deep at the end of the standard defence situation. Furthermore, the national teams show significant differences in variability of the defence systems and start-positions are more variable than the end-positions. Multilayer perceptrons are able to recognize the teams at an average of 98.5%. It is concluded that defence systems in team sports are highly individual at a competitive level and variable even in standard situations. Artificial neural networks can be used to recognize teams by the shapes of the players' configurations. These findings support the concept that tactics and strategy have to be adapted for the team and need to be flexible in order to be successful.     

Psycho-perceptual-motor skills are deemed critical to save the penalty corner in international field hockey

In interceptive sports such as field hockey goalkeeping, the psycho-perceptual-motor skill anticipation is vital for performance due to the extreme time constraints associated with saving a goal. The purpose of this study was to understand the beliefs and attitudes of international field hockey goalkeepers and coaches regarding anticipation of the drag-flick in penalty corners. Seven international goalkeepers and five international coaches were interviewed. Using a constructionist and relativist approach to reflexive thematic data analysis, we identified three overarching themes to anticipate the drag-flick, namely, pre-match video analysis, perception and action, and psychological factors. In the first theme, participants reported that pre-match video analysis allowed goalkeepers and coaches to identify the attacking capabilities of opposing teams. This analysis was used to inform defensive structure and save the drag-flick. In the second theme, participants reported that perception and action, which consisted of the pick-up of visual cues and movement execution, was important to anticipate the drag-flick. Goalkeepers reported that they rely heavily on ball flight, which was central in coaches’ approaches in training drills such as to use a projection machine that presents only ball flight information. The third theme, psychological factors, encompassed, psychological resilience, arousal regulation, leadership and communication, and sports intelligence, which were thought to be vital to facilitate anticipation of the drag-flick. The findings of this study have important implications for how to assess and train visual anticipation in time-constrained interceptive sports skills.     

Task familiarity and task efficacy: a study of sports coaches

The purpose of the study was to establish a profile of coaching efficacy with Hong Kong community coaches who differ in knowledge and hours spent in coaching. Coaching efficacy can be described in four dimensions, namely, Motivation, Strategy, Technique, and Character Building. It was hypothesized that coaches who had spent more time coaching and were more knowledgeable about the sport and coaching would score higher on those four dimensions of a Coaching Efficacy Scale. The scale was administered to 252 coaches working with beginning and district-level athletes in a variety of sports. Analysis suggested that their self-reported efficacy on Strategy was least strong. This means that the coaches were not confident in analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of opposing teams, making decisions on the type of game strategy to employ, and maximizing athletes' strength in competitions. Coaches with less coaching experience were also less confident about motivating athletes. This information on coaching efficacy may be useful in deciding content for a program of education for coaching.     

Defensive pessimism: harnessing anxiety as motivation

In this article we discuss the strategies that people may use to cope with situations that are risky in that they present the possibility for failure and potential threats to self-esteem. Previous research has indicated that anxiety (Sarason, 1980) and explicitly set low expectations (Sherman, Skov, Hervitz, & Stock, 1981) may lead to performance deficits in these situations. Experiment 1 indicates, in contrast, that with a strategy called defensive pessimism (Norem & Cantor, 1986), individuals may sometimes use low expectations to cope with their anxiety so that it does not become debilitating. A second experiment further supports the contention that low expectations may help individuals negotiate risky situations by showing that interference with the defensive-pessimism strategy impairs performance. Subjects whose strategic construction of the situation was not interfered with do not show impaired performance. These data are interpreted as evidence that the effects of low expectations and high anxiety on performance may be mediated by the strategies individuals use when approaching risky situations.     

How perceiving additional targets modifies teams’ tactical behavior during football small-sided games

This study aimed to measure how the change on targets information modifies teams’ tactical behavior during football small-sided games. 20 male senior professional players divided in 4 teams of 5 players participated in the study. Each team played two small-sided games, one with 2 official targets with goalkeeper and one with 6 small targets. Positional data of each player were recorded using a 15 Hz portable GPS. The distance between the centers of gravity (CG) of both team, the stretch index and the relative stretch index were measured and differences accessed via standardized differences, coefficient intervals and meta-analysis procedures. A moderate increase on the distance between the CG of each team and a small decrease on the stretch index and on the relative stretch index from 2 targets to the 6 targets games was observed. It was also identified that pitch location affected the interaction between teams. When the game was played in lateral corridors or defensive sectors, the differences between game conditions increased. Emphasizing the information for attacking team to shoot at goal, by manipulating the number of targets constrained tactical behavior of teams. The amplification of specific information on small-sided games can help coaches to promote players and teams’ emergent adapted behaviors.     

Evaluation of the offensive behavior of elite soccer teams.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the offensive behavior of the four elite teams (France, Brazil, Croatia, and Holland) using data from the semifinals of the 18th World Soccer Championship in France in 1998. 28 videotaped soccer games were observed, 7 for each team. The protocol contained the following parameters of evaluation: (a) successful pass in the defensive and middle area, (b) unsuccessful pass in the defensive and middle area, (c) attempt on goal in the offensive area, and (d) cross and follow-up action. A multivariate analysis of variance showed the teams' plan was significantly different only in playing the ball back to the goalkeeper. This last action, used more often by Holland than by the other teams, indicated its restrained offensive behavior, which may be one of the reasons for its defeat in some games.     

Exploring the Contribution of the Caring Climate to the Youth Sport Experience

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between young athletes’ perceptions of the caring climate on their soccer teams to their enjoyment, attitudes and, behaviors toward their coach and teammates, and commitment to the sport. Athletes (N = 184) in a community soccer league volunteered to complete a survey. Results revealed that athletes who perceived a caring climate on their teams were significantly more likely to report higher enjoyment, more positive attitudes towards their coaches/teammates, greater commitment to soccer, and engage in more caring behaviors towards their coaches/teammates. Results suggest that a caring climate may benefit young athletes.     

Exploration of the moderator effect of cultural diversity on team performance across 45 professional football leagues: An ecological dynamics perspective on cross-cultural research

ObjectiveTo investigate the moderating effect of cultural diversity on team performance in professional football worldwide through the lens of ecological dynamics and cross-cultural psychology.Designand Method: Based a sample of 23,186 matches played by 728 teams across 45 leagues during the 2020/21 season, two sets of moderated regression analyses were conducted to examine the effect on sporting results of the interaction between teams’ cultural diversity, their dominant playing style and market value. In addition to bivariate correlations, a total of 16 ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models were designed to test 5 hypotheses. A new theoretical model, the Integrative Categorization-Intentionality Model (ICIM), was proposed to explain four key findings.FindingsCDI’s role as a statistically significant cross-cultural moderator was confirmed in relation to all three styles of play: possession-based (ß = −0.08, p < 0.05), constructive attacking (ß = −0.30, p < 0.01), and defensive (ß = 0.28, p < 0.05), the respective models explaining 35.6%, 34% and 35% of the variance. Results showed that cultural heterogeneity contributes to goal scoring in teams reliant on the first two styles, whilst defensively-oriented teams were more likely to improve performance with increasing cultural homogeneity. Moreover, the positive effect of cultural heterogeneity on sporting outcomes was more likely in less affluent teams. Finally, empirical evidence revealed a link between enhanced performance and a higher proportion of domestic defensive players in defensively oriented teams (ß = −0.11, p < 0.05), and, similarly, between a higher proportion of foreign offensive players in offensively-oriented teams (ß = −0.27, p < 0.01).ConclusionsThe study has practical implications for scouting/recruitment of players when strategizing on team cultural and functional composition, as well as for coaches in terms of designing suitable training practices gauged to match and develop multicultural teams’ diverse skill set, or more generally, in relation to managing multicultural teams.     

Simulation study of a decision-making model of squash competition, phase two: Testing the model through the use of computer simulation

This study aims at verifying the inner validity and logic of a squash competition decision-making model through the use of computer simulation. The model defines the cognitive-decisional strategy of the defending player (D) when selecting a motor reaction in response to his opponent's shot. Computer simulation of the model was carried out on a PDP-10 computer using a recent version of UCI-LISP. Protocol analysis data pertaining to the nature of the information D processes when awaiting the attacking player's shot were fed into the simulation program in order to examine the extent to which the model can reproduce decisions reached in various defensive contexts. Simulation results reveal that the proposed model can account for a substantial part of the variation in the speed and accuracy of D's motor reaction in real sport situations. Several factors like time pressure, expectancies, uncertainty, recency and familiarity of the relationship between signal and response appear to affect D's motor response via the cognitive-decisional strategy employed by the defending player. Particular discrepancies observed between simulation results and decisions reached by expert players in specific defensive situations nevertheless indicate that the decision rule utilized within the present model needs to be refined. In this regard, several issues are discussed and suggestions for further simulation studies are put forward in order to account more precisely for the various features characterizing the defensive player's motor reaction in real sporting context.     

From Autocracy to Empowerment: Teams with Shared Leadership Perceive their Coaches to be Better Leaders

Sports coaches often fear that empowering the players in their team would undermine their own leadership status. To investigate the legitimacy of this perception, we mapped the leadership structure within 64 sports teams (N = 840). The results highlight that the perceived leadership quality of the coaches is positively related to the density of their team's leadership networks (i.e., the average leadership qualities of all players). This finding held for task, motivational, social, and external leadership. The best coaches are thus the ones who adopt a shared leadership approach and who strengthen the leadership quality of their players.

Lay Summary

Sports coaches often feel that empowering the players in their teams undermines their own leadership status. This study investigates the legitimacy of this perception within 64 sports teams. Our findings provide evidence for the opposite view; by creating and developing leaders in their teams, coaches are perceived as better leaders themselves.     

Adaptive behaviours of attacking futsal teams to opposition defensive formations

This study evaluated tendencies towards flexibility/stability of coordinated behaviours in international futsal teams, considered as complex collective systems, according to changes in opposition defensive formations. Six games of two international futsal teams (Spain and Portugal) were selected for Social Network Analysis to capture the coordination tendencies that emerge in the tactical behaviours of players when performing against different defensive formations. Ball trajectories in each offensive pattern of play were notated in an adjacency matrix where each entry accounted for the linkages between 12 spatial field areas. Each offensive play was coded according to the defensive formation of an opposing team (i.e. conservative or risky formation). Results revealed similar network properties between teams when competing against more risky defensive formations, while notable differences were observed against conservative defences. Effect of defensive formation of opponents on macro network properties was observed in both the Portuguese and Spanish teams. At a meso-level, only the Spanish national team exhibited notable changes, suggesting a greater level of adaptability to unfolding performance events. The observed flexibility in tactical behaviours of the Spanish team appeared to express their greater expertise levels.     

Professional handball coaches management of players' situated understanding during official games

ObjectivesThis study, based on the team cognition approach, investigated the information content expressed by coaches when helping players build or update their understanding of the unfolding game. The focus was on how this content fits into the usual task-work/teamwork and procedural/declarative taxonomies.DesignThe data were collected through the audio and video recording of the communications and behaviors of three professional head coaches throughout a total of 15 games. We used deductive content analysis, crossing information contents related to task-work or teamwork with information contents related to declarative or procedural knowledge across the five game periods (first and second half of the first and second half-time, break-time period), and the three score differentials between the teams (favorable, balanced, and unfavorable).MethodWe first performed a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) using a 5 (Game Periods) × 3 (Score Difference) factorial design. Follow-up ANOVAs with repeated-measures were performed to identify the variables contributing to the multivariate effect. We then performed a repeated-measures analysis of variance for information contents related to declarative and procedural knowledge in occurrences of task-work and teamwork categories.ResultsThe results showed that the coaches expressed information related more often to players' procedural knowledge than to their declarative knowledge. We discovered two main effects (game periods and score differences) in coaches' information contents delivered to players. Information related to procedural knowledge was not addressed to the team as a whole, but to certain players.ConclusionsThis suggests that an information flow was more distributed than shared.     

An Examination of Homologous Reproduction in the Representation of Assistant Coaches of Women’s Teams

Researchers (e.g., Stangl & Kane Sociology of Sport Journal, 8: 47–60, 1991) have been successful in using homologous reproduction theory to explain the decline of women in coaching roles. In this investigation, we aimed to extend previous research by exploring the practice in (a) employment patterns of assistant coaches, and (b) environments in which women are actually the dominant gender doing the hiring. Data from the 2002–2003 Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act (EADA) was used to determine if a head coach’s gender impacted the gender composition of assistant coaches on a staff in four different women’s teams sports in NCAA Division I, II, and III institutions (n?=?2,964). The results indicate that the gender of a head coach does impact the gender composition of the assistant coaches on a staff, irrespective of sport. This relationship was most notable when the head coach was female, as female head coaches were much more likely to hire female assistants than male head coaches were to hire male assistant coaches.     

Defensive Pessimism,Anxiety, and the Complexity of Evaluating Self‐Regulation

Defensive pessimism is a motivated cognitive strategy that helps people manage their anxiety and pursue their goals. Individuals who use defensive pessimism set low expectations, and play through extensive mental simulations of possible outcomes as they prepare for goal‐relevant tasks and situations. Research on a variety of phenomena, from self‐handicapping to stereotype threat, demonstrates the potential effectiveness of defensive pessimism as a self‐regulation strategy. Review of this research provides an illustration of the complexity of self‐regulation efforts, because understanding how and why defensive pessimism works requires an integrated understanding the role of traits, motivations, and self structures within the individual, the resultant goals toward which strategies are directed, and the particular constraints of different situations and cultural contexts.     

Rule Violations in Intercollegiate Athletics: A Qualitative Investigation Utilizing an Organizational Justice Framework

Cheating and rule violations in intercollegiate athletics continue to be relevant issues in many institutions of higher education because they reflect upon the integrity of the institutions in which they are housed, causing concern among many faculty members, administrators, and trustees. Although a great deal of research has documented the numerous rule violations in NCAA intercollegiate athletics, much of it has failed to combine sound theory with practical solutions. The purpose of this study was to examine the possible extensions of the organizational justice framework to the problem of rule violations in intercollegiate athletics. In doing so, the current study examined (a) perceived areas of injustice among coaches at NCAA Division I institutions, (b) avenues by which coaches resolve these injustices, and (c) potential solutions for resolving injustices in an attempt to reduce NCAA violations. Six NCAA Division I basketball coaches from various parts of the country (four from men's teams and two from women's teams) were interviewed using a semi-structured format. Despite the NCAA's efforts to create parity, results showed that coaches perceived several areas of inequities in recruiting, including financial resources and academic standards. The interviewed coaches described several means that are currently used to resolve these inequities and offered recommendations for changes to reduce injustice in the future.     

The Optimal Team Functioning Model: A Grounded Theory Framework to Guide Teamwork in Curling

A constructivist grounded theory approach was used to investigate teamwork and team effectiveness in the sport of curling. Focus group and individual interviews were conducted with 78 athletes and 10 coaches from 19 high-performance curling teams. Data analysis led to the creation of the Optimal Team Functioning (OTF) model, which comprises 8?key components for optimal team functioning: (a) individual attributes, (b) team attributes, (c) foundational process of communication, (d) structural team processes, (e) individual regulation processes, (f) team regulation processes, (g) context, and (h) desired outcomes. Components and relationships within the model, along with practical implications, are discussed.

Lay Summary: Developing effective sport teams is a challenging and complex process. Unfortunately, few resources are available to guide coaches and athletes in their efforts to optimally function and perform as a unit on a daily basis. This novel team dynamics research was carried out with high-performance coaches and athletes to uncover a comprehensive and ecologically valid model mapping out effective teamwork within the sport of curling. The Optimal Team Functioning Model focuses on concrete actions that can be applied to successfully set up and manage a team and its individual members throughout a season.     

国外防御性悲观研究述评

防御性悲观是指在过去的成就情境中取得过成功,但在面临新的相似的成就情境时仍然设置不现实的低的期望水平并反复思考事情的各种可能结果。它的两个基本成分是消极期望和反思性。国外相关研究主要涉及防御性悲观与乐观、抑郁及自我妨碍等相关概念的比较,并探讨了导致防御性悲观的形成的个人情感动机因素及文化、家庭环境等因素。未来研究可在被试的选择、测量工具的编制和研究范围等方面加以改进,并加强跨文化比较研究     

Vigilant Self‐regulation and Costly Punishment in Public Goods Situations

Applying regulatory focus theory to the context of social dilemma situations, the present research demonstrates that individual differences in vigilant, prevention‐focused self‐regulation predict the tendency to invest private resources to punish uncooperative interaction partners (costly punishment), a behaviour that typically has strong positive effects on the collective level of cooperation. Analyses further support the distinctiveness of the vigilance system proposed in regulatory focus theory (prevention focus) in comparison with general defensive inhibitory tendencies (measured with Carver and White's Behavioral Inhibition System scale). Results document that individual differences in prevention‐focused self‐regulation but not differences in general defensive inhibitory tendencies are positively related to costly punishment. In sum, the findings indicate that vigilant, prevention‐focused self‐regulation plays a crucial role in the context of sanctions that enforce cooperation. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The future is now: prospective temporal self-appraisals among defensive pessimists and optimists

Three studies found that prospective temporal self-appraisals can be part of defensive pessimists' strategy; they felt closer to equally distant negative than positive futures. In Study 1, defensive pessimists felt closer to future failures and reported more negative affect than those considering success. In Study 2, when manipulated negative futures were close, defensive pessimists felt bad and performed well; results suggested that viewing negative futures as close may be part of their natural strategy. Study 3 found that prospective self-appraisals influenced performances through felt preparation. Optimists did not use prospective self-appraisals (Study 1) and their performances were unaffected by manipulated temporal distance (Studies 2 and 3). Discussion centers on prospective self-appraisals and multiple strategies of defensive pessimists.