Vibrotactual choice reaction time,tactile receptor systems and ideomotor compatibility

In most of the literature on human performance the results of an experiment by Leonard (1959) are quoted as the most outstanding example of perfect S-R-compatibility. In that experiment the fingertips were stimulated by a 50 Hz vibration; the vibrating armature had to be depressed and the reaction times of the right index finger were recorded. The reaction time was found not to increase with an increasing number of tactual choices. In experiment 1 of the present study, also applying 50 Hz vibrations, the reaction times of other fingers were also reported. In addition the response stimulus interval (RSI) was varied. Leonard's results were not replicated: reaction time increased with the number of tactual choices at all levels of RSI. In experiment 2 the frequency and amplitude of vibration were systematically varied and it turned out that these variables could account for the differences between the results found. An increase in reaction time with the number of tactual choices was found with weak vibrations, but not with strong vibrations. The differences in reaction time patterns appeared to be caused by differences in tactile receptor systems (i.e. the non-Pacini versus the Pacinian system). It was concluded that the concept of S-R-compatibility did not cover the pattern of results but that the concept of ideomotor compatibility did.     

Attention-switching and grouping in counting interaurally presented clicks.

The present study tests the hypothesis that attention-switching is time-consuming and performance-limiting. Analysis of previous research on counting interaurally presented clicks shows that estimates of ‘switch-times’ can be made, based on the data of Guzy and Axelrod (1972). In the earlier click-counting studies, however, the number of clicks to be counted and the number of physical switches between the ears were confouned. Hence the number of clicks, number of physical switches and interval between clicks were independently varied. The results showed that (a) counting performance did not decrease monotonically with increasing number of switches in the click sequence; (b) no difference in counting performance could be found between the monaural and completely alternating interaural presentation; (c) when the number of switches in the sequence was small and equal groups of clicks alternated between ears, performance dramatically improved. With these kinds of sequences, subjects presumably do not count the clicks one at a time, but subitize a group of clicks.     

Measuring women's interests using Holland's vocational classification

A Hebrew interest inventory for females in Israel, based on Holland's 1966 1973 vocational classification, was examined on 322 female pupils and 167 working females. Results showed that: (a) with the exception of the Conventional and Enterprising fields, subjects occupied in a field had their highest interest score in that field; (b) for all six interest fields, the highest interest score was the score of those who were engaged in that field; (c) in a smallest space analysis, the activities, competencies, and occupation sections of the interest inventory formed the Investigative, Realistic, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional circular arrangement; (d) a correlation of .38 between interest score and job satisfaction was found.     

Persistence of response prevention effects following retraining of escape behavior

This study evaluated the effects of response prevention procedures on the extinction of escape behavior following the reinstatement of shock-escape training prior to the start of extinction. Female hooded rats were assigned to four groups (N = 10) in a factorial design which orthogonally combined response prevention or pseudo-prevention procedures with escape retraining or no retraining procedures. Results showed that prevention reliably impaired shock-escape behavior on early retraining trials; but this effect dissipated completely by the end of retraining. In extinction, prevention reliably facilitated the extinction of escape behavior relative to that of pseudo-prevention controls; but the degree of facilitation was reliably attenuated by retraining procedures. These findings were related to the competing response interpretation of prevention effects.     

Children's cued recall: Developmental differences in retrieval operations

Second and fifth grade children were aurally presented a study list containing eight target items plus primacy and recency buffers, followed first by free recall, then by cued recall for items not produced in free recall. Two additional buffer items were used at Grade 5 in an effort to equate the two age groups in free recall of targets. The cues were either of high or of moderate associative strength, and equal for the two age groups. Free recall of targets did not differ with age, suggesting equivalent storage of targets. At Grade 2 the cued recall level matched expectations based on a simple associative account of cuing effects. However, cued recall at Grade 5 was much higher than the normative association values, implicating strategic retrieval operations, the possible nature of which was discussed.     

II. The comparability of the WISC-R and WAIS among 16-year-old EMR children

Thirty 16-year-old EMR children were administered the WAIS and WISC-R in counterbalance order to determine the comparability of the two assessment instruments. The WAIS was found to yield significantly higher Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ scores. The comparisons of corresponding subtests indicate that all WAIS subtests were significantly higher than the WISC-R except Picture Completion. Correlations between corresponding WAIS and WISC-R IQ scales and subtests, however, were significant. The results suggest differences between the two instruments among children of subnormal intelligence, thus presenting the possibility that a child may be differentially classified based on the selection of the intelligence test.     

The effects of review on young children's memory for prose

The present study investigated the effects of review on young children's memory for prose. Prose passages were parsed into three levels of thematic importance. Five groups (128-year-old children each) participated in three experimental sessions, with each session separated by 1 week. During the first session all subjects listened to two passages. One week later, subjects in four of the groups received differing review experiences. During the third session, delayed retention was assessed. The data are interpreted to indicate that the repetition of the original learning experience was the most effective review; however, immediate reproduction following initial exposure also significantly attenuated forgetting. All groups favored the central passage ideas in their delayed recalls, regardless of their review treatment. The potential benefits of an immediate test as a review exercise was suggested.     

Humphreys's attenuated test of Spearman's hypothesis

Humphreys's test of Spearman's hypothesis (viz., that the size of the standardized black-white differences on various psychometric tests is positively related to the tests' loadings on g, the general intelligence factor) is methodologically weak. It is based on comparison of a fairly representative sample of the black population of U.S. school children with a highly selected sample of the white school population, representing the lowest 15 to 20% of whites in socio-economic status (SES). A fair test of the hypothesis requires that the black and white samples should not be selected on any g-correlated variable, such as SES. Selection attenuates and distorts the relationship between tests' g loadings and the magnitude of the standardized mean black-white differences on the tests. Other unorthodox conditions in Humphreys's study, such as performing factor analysis on the test-score means of various arbitrary demographic groups instead of on individual test scores inflates tests' g loadings and biases the test of Spearman's hypothesis by restriction of reliable variance in g loadings. Humphreys's study cannot be considered a proper replication of Jensen's examination of Spearman's hypothesis in 11 different studies comprising 74 different tests, which consistently bears out Spearman's hypothesis.     

Concurrent validity and Holland's theory

This study was designed to explore two areas: (1) the concurrent validity of Holland's theory for employed men using four different operational definitions of vocational orientation, and (2) the relationships among all possible combinations of same named scales across the four inventories. Concurrent validity was studied by administering the Vocational Preference Inventory, the Self Directed Search, and the Holland Scales (Set I and Set II) to 153 male workers established in occupational environments consistent with Holland's six vocational environments. The results revealed that five scales of the VPI and of the Holland Scales (Set I and Set II) and four scales of the SDS successfully differentiated the occupational groups consistent with Holland's theoretical framework. The correlation coefficients for same named scales for all possible combinations of the four inventories were all found to be significant. In general, the findings of this study tend to support the concurrent validity of Holland's theory for employed men.     

Relationship with people as the underlying dimension for Roe's classification of occupations

One hundred eleven subjects were asked to indicate how much relationship with people is involved in 48 occupational titles. The results support Roe's (1956) classification of occupations: differences within occupational fields were found to be smaller than differences between occupational fields (F = 8.53, P < .01). The homogeneity of Arts and Entertainment is discussed.     

Interest inventories based on Roe's classification modified for negative respondents

The Ramak and Courses interest inventories (Meir, 1974; Meir, Sohlberg, & Barak, 1973) based on Roe's 1956 occupational classification, were modified for use with subjects who answer negatively to most items in the traditional forms. One hundred thirty-six males, aged 19–21, responded to the Ramak and Courses inventories with the R ? A (Refuse, Undecided, Agree) scale. The split half reliability of the modified inventories is 0.75, and their occupational structure has the same shape and arrangement as the inventories with the Y ? N scale. Negative respondents give more positive responses (p < .05) on the modified forms than on the traditional ones.     

A simple instrument for measuring vocational interests based on Roe's classification of occupations

A vocational interests inventory-“Ramak”-based on Roe's (1956) classification of occupations was constructed. It consisted of 72 names of occupations. Equivalent-test reliability of 0.76 was achieved. The inventory was validated on working samples and by the structure of intercorrelations. The advantages of this inventory are discussed.     

Errors in children's subtraction

Many of the errors that occur in children' subtraction are due to the use of incorrect strategies rather than to the incorrect recall of number facts. A production system is presented for performing written subtraction which is consistent with an earlier analysis of the nature of such a cognitive skill. Most of the incorrect strategies used by schoolchildren can be accounted for in a principled way by simple changes in the production system, such as the omission of individual rules or the inclusion of rules appropriate to other arithmetical tasks. The production system model is evaluated against a corpus of over 1500 subtraction problems done by 10-year olds and is shown to account for about two-thirds of the (nonnumber fact) errors. It also provides an alternative, simpler interpretation of the subtraction errors analysed by Brown and Burton (1978). Some implications for teaching are discussed.     

Predicting persistence,stability, and achievement in college by major choice consistency: A test of Holland's consistency hypothesis

This study examined the relationships between students' level of consistency in choosing a major in college and their persistence, stability, and achievement in a 5-year follow-up. In contrast to the findings of most previous studies, it was found that consistent students tend to persist in college, not to change majors, and that they have higher achievement than inconsistent students. It was suggested that the current findings, which support Holland's theory, were different from the results of previous studies because of the use of behavioral definition for consistency level (actual student major choices) rather than responses to various inventories. The significance of these findings were discussed.     

Young children's understanding of displaced aggression

According to previous research, young children do not understand displaced aggression. The present study examines the early phases of the understanding of the causes of moderately and extremely displaced aggression. Preschool and kindergarten children (3 to 5 years of age) viewed eight videotaped episodes of displaced aggression. Their comprehension of this aggression was assessed by means of open ended questions and forced choice picture selections. By age 5 most children had some understanding of displaced aggression, but this understanding was not complete. The early understanding revealed in the present study may be due to the use of short, simple realistic videotaped episodes appropriate for the limited processing abilities of young children. Extreme displacement was not more difficult to understand than moderate displacement.     

A test of Holland's theory in a population of accountants

The study examined the SDS scales and work attitudes of 1952 Canadian Chartered Accountants (Anglophones and Francophones) and Californian Certified Public Accountants. Combinations of C, E, and S were found the most frequent personality patterns, and they constitute 27.8% of the total population. Scores on these types were positively related to organizational and professional commitments, as well as to vocational satisfaction. The level of congruence was positively correlated with the vocational criteria only in the American sample. The consistency level correlated with professional commitment in the Francophone sample, whereas the differentiation score showed mixed results.     

Effects of spacing repetitions on children's memory

Two experiments examined the effect of spacing repetitions within a word list on the free recall performance of elementary school children. In the first experiment, spacing repetitions facilitated recall, and the function relating recall of repeated items to the spacing between repetitions was the same throughout the age range investigated (first, third, and sixth graders). But, the function for these elementary school children reached asymptote at a much shorter spacing than the function typically reported for adults. The second experiment was designed to test an encoding variability explanation of spaced-repetition effects in elementary school children. Results for both third- and sixth-grade children were consistent with the hypothesis that differential encoding of repetitions facilitates performance and that spaced repetitions are remembered better because they are more likely to be differentially encoded. A theoretical framework was discussed that may be able to encompass both these results and another finding in the literature which indicates that differential encoding can sometimes impair rather than facilitate children's memory performance.     

Kindergarten children's use of category membership

Kindergarten children (N = 70) learned to order 12 photographically presented objects. The objects were well known and either unrelated or categorizable into two, three, four, or six well-known categories. Free recall was assessed. Results indicated that the children used category membership both to learn and to recall the items. However, they processed the list composed of six pairs of items at least as efficiently as lists composed of fewer but larger groups of items (including a list indexed as easiest through previous adult performance).