Bully/victim problems and their association with Machiavellianism and self‐efficacy in Greek primary school children

Background: Previous research demonstrated that Machiavellian beliefs are linked with bully/victim problems at school. However, Machiavellianism was treated as a single construct and not as multidimensional. Children's perceptions of self‐efficacy in both social and academic domains have been related to conflictual peer interactions but not directly to bully/victim problems. This study extends previous work by examining the association of Machiavellianism and self‐efficacy with bully/victim problems. Aims: The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between bully/victim problems and (a) components of Machiavellian beliefs, (b) Self‐efficacy for Assertion, (c) Self‐efficacy for Aggression and (d) Self‐efficacy for Learning and Performance, among school‐age children. It was also examined whether children who bully others and are bullied themselves (bully/victims) are a distinct group in terms of Machiavellian beliefs and the above perceptions of self‐efficacy. Sample: The sample consisted of 186 children drawn from the fourth to sixth grade classrooms of four primary schools in central Greece. Method: Peer victimization and bullying behaviour were assessed by two 6‐item self‐report scales (Austin & Joseph, 1996), Machiavellian beliefs with a 20‐item scale (Christie & Geis, 1970), Self‐efficacy for Assertion and Self‐efficacy for Aggression with two 6‐item scales (Egan & Perry, 1998) and Self‐efficacy for Learning and Performance with an 8‐item scale (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991). Higher scores reflected greater victimization, bullying behaviour, Machiavellianism and domain specific self‐efficacy. Data were analysed using both correlational and categorical approach. Results: Factor analysis of the Kiddie Mach scale revealed four main factors: Lack of Faith in Human Nature, Manipulation, Dishonesty and Distrust. The results of the correlational approach suggest that both bullying and victimization are associated with most of these factors, overall Machiavellianism and self‐efficacy measures. Separate analyses for boys and girls provide a more precise picture of that association. The results of the categorical approach, regarding differences in the Kiddie Mach and Self‐efficacy scales between bullies, victims and bully/victims, suggest that bully/victims are a distinct group in terms of Lack of Faith in Human Nature and overall Machiavellianism. Moreover, bully/victims were found to be similar to victims with respect to Self‐efficacy for Assertion but similar to bullies with respect to Self‐efficacy for Aggression. Conclusions: Anti‐bullying interventions might profit from a greater focus on mastery‐oriented motivation and more emphasis on citizenship and interpersonal relationships in order to minimize children's aggression‐encouraging cognition and reduce Machiavellian attitudes. Further research is needed to explain satisfactorily the behaviour patterns of bully/victims.     

The relation between memories of childhood psychological maltreatment and Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism is a hot topic in several branches of psychology. Using Life-History Theory several studies identified Machiavellianism as a fast life strategy. According to this idea, Machiavellianism should be related to childhood adversities. Using a sample of adults we investigated the relationship between Machiavellianism and self-reported memories of childhood psychological maltreatment. Participants (247 individuals, 141 female, 32.38 ± 5.43 years of age on average) completed the Mach-IV Scale and the Childhood Abuse and Trauma Scale. Results showed a relationship between neglect and Machiavellianism in general, Machiavellian tactics, and Machiavellian world view. There was also a marginally significant link between punishment and Machiavellian tactics. Results are discussed from a moral developmental perspective and through the alexithymia hypothesis of Machiavellianism.     

Constraints for Some,Opportunities for Others? Interactive and Indirect Effects of Machiavellianism and Organizational Constraints on Task Performance Ratings

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine how the indirect relationship between Machiavellianism and task performance ratings is qualified by organizational constraints (e.g., inadequate resources). Contrary to past research, we suggest that constraints can actually facilitate performance ratings among highly Machiavellian employees because they seek to attain high ratings through self-interested behaviors and social influence processes rather than legitimate task performance. Thus, constraints that inhibit legitimate performers should actually create more opportunities for highly Machiavellian employees.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Data were collected from 110 subordinate–supervisor dyads that were recruited from Psychology courses at a small liberal arts college.

Findings

The results elaborate on past research focused on organizational constraints to reveal that the indirect relationship between Machiavellianism and task performance is positive and significant under conditions of high organizational constraints. This relationship is not significant and trends in a negative direction when constraints are low.

Implications

This study highlights the importance of considering how resource constraints impact different types of performers in organizations. When resources are abundant, legitimate performance is possible and Machiavellians are hampered in their ability to rely on careerist strategies to succeed. In contrast, high constraints create situations that enable Machiavellian behaviors to pay off.

Originality/Value

This study’s originality lies in its counterintuitive finding that organizational constraints might actually be beneficial for some employees who adopt Machiavellian, careerist strategies. This is the first study to demonstrate that constraints do not have consistent, negative effects on task performance and to elaborate on how constraints impact the performance of Machiavellian employees.     

Borderline Personality Organization predicts Machiavellian interpersonal tactics

Despite the phenomenological (e.g., manipulativeness) and dynamic (i.e., emotion dysregulation) analogies between Machiavellianism and Borderline Personality Organization (BPO), the relationship between these constructs has not yet been investigated. In our study, 225 non-clinical, non-student adults (130 females; 32.33 ± 5.42 years of age on average) completed measures of BPO and Machiavellianism. Results showed that Machiavellian personality traits were positively correlated with fear of fusion, diffuse identity, and use of primitive defenses. Machiavellianism, in general, and Machiavellian interpersonal tactics were predicted by fear of fusion and use of primitive defenses. Results are discussed from the perspective of Life History Theory.     

Nothing ventured nothing gained: Strong associations between reward sensitivity and two measures of Machiavellianism

Recent theoretical work on the Life History Theory and empirical findings on Machiavellianism suggest that Machiavellian individuals are motivated to acquire short-term benefits and prioritize situations with high potential rewards. Accordingly, in our study, we investigated the associations between reward/punishment sensitivity and Machiavellian interpersonal tactics with self-report measures. Moreover, as a first attempt, we investigated the correlates of Machiavellianism and the behavioral preference for rewards with the IOWA Gambling task (IGT). The results showed robust positive associations of Machiavellian behavioral characteristics with Sensitivity to Reward, and a moderately negative correlation with Sensitivity to Punishment. This finding was further supported by IGT: Machiavellians tended to make reward-oriented decisions.     

Machiavellianism and manipulation in the mental patient role

Patients’ Machiavellian orientations were compared to their reputations among the staff as manipulators, helpers, or model patients. For both acute and chronic patients, Machiavellianism was consistently found to relate significantly to the manipulator reputation and not to the other reputations The relationships held for patients diagnosed psychotic as well as nonpsychotic. These findings support the propositions that mental patients attempt to manipulate the staff in their everyday contact with them and that manipulation constitutes one of the major adaptive styles employed by patients The relationships were demonstrated more reliably in group treatment programs than in an individual treatment program Expected differences in the relationships according to birth order were not found Machiavellian social desirability significantly related to the helper and model patient reputations for acute patients, suggesting its potential value as a dispositional variable also.     

Charting the Eccles' expectancy-value model from mothers' beliefs in childhood to youths' activities in adolescence

The Eccles' expectancy-value model posits that a cascade of mechanisms explain associations between parents' beliefs and youths' achievement-related behaviors. Specifically, parents' beliefs predict parents' behaviors; in turn, parents' behaviors predict youths' motivational beliefs, and youths' motivational beliefs predict their behaviors. This investigation focused on testing this model with mothers in sports, music, math, and reading over a 12-year period. Data were drawn from mother, youth, and teacher questionnaires collected as part of Childhood and Beyond Study (92% European American; N = 723). Mothers' beliefs in sports, music, and math positively predicted their behaviors in these areas 1 year later, which predicted youths' self-concepts of ability and values (i.e., their motivational beliefs) in these domains 1 year later. Adolescents' motivational beliefs predicted time spent in organized sport activities, playing music, and reading after school measured 4 years later as well as the number of math courses taken in high school. Furthermore, except in reading, mothers' behaviors mediated the relations between mothers' and youths' beliefs, and youths' beliefs mediated the relations between mothers' behaviors and youths' behaviors. Although there were mean-level differences in several indicators based on child gender, in most cases the relations among these indicators did not significantly vary by child gender. This study highlights the processes by which mothers' beliefs during their children's childhood can predict children's activities in adolescence.     

Parental values, reinforcement, and young children's prosocial behavior: a longitudinal study.

In this study, the authors assessed the relation of parental reinforcement and parental values to young children's prosocial behaviors. Parents' dyadic interactions with their 1- to 2-year-old children were videotaped in the home on two occasions approximately 6 months apart. The children also were videotaped playing with a peer at 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 years of age. Parental reinforcement of the children's prosocial behaviors was coded, as were the children's prosocial behaviors with the peer. The frequency of girls' spontaneous prosocial behaviors decreased in the early years; modest consistency was observed for boys (but not girls) across the two parental sessions. No relation existed between the frequency of children's prosocial behaviors with their parents and their behaviors with peers. Both maternal and paternal valuing of compliance were negatively related to the mothers' use of reinforcement for children's spontaneous prosocial behaviors. Parental reinforcement of compliant prosocial behaviors was negatively related to children's compliance with a peer's request for prosocial behavior and positively related to defensive behavior with the peer. Fathers' valuing of prosocial behavior was associated with children's compliance with the peer's requests for prosocial action. Parents who valued compliance had children who exhibited low levels of compliant prosocial behaviors with the peer, possibly because of the depressed level of peer interaction.     

Machiavellian emotion regulation in a cognitive reappraisal task: An fMRI study

Affective coldness is one of the main features of Machiavellianism. Recent studies have revealed that Machiavellians are emotionally detached and that this “affective blunting” is associated with intense feelings, emotional instability, negative emotions, and difficulty in enduring distress. We used brain-imaging techniques to investigate emotion regulation in Machiavellianism at a neuropsychological level. We used situations in which participants were required to demonstrate emotional flexibility to explore the controversy surrounding the fact that Machiavellianism is associated with both cold-mindedness and emotional instability. Participants performed a reappraisal task in which emotionally evocative pictures (from the International Affective Picture System) were presented in different contexts (negative, positive, and neutral). They were asked to interpret a scenario according to its title and to reinterpret it according to another context created by a new title (e.g., negatively labeled pictures shifted to positively labeled ones). During task performance, Machiavellians showed increased activation of brain regions associated with emotion generation—for example, the amygdala and insula. This indicates that Machiavellian individuals are able to be involved emotionally in social situations. Increased activation in the temporal and parahippocampal regions during reappraisal suggests that Machiavellians use semantic–perceptual processes to construct alternative interpretations of the same situation and have enhanced memory for emotional stimuli. Furthermore, they seem to possess an intense awareness that leads them to shift attention from external to internal information to detect environmental changes. These cognitive processes may enable them to adjust their behavior quickly. This study supports the flexibility hypothesis of Machiavellianism and suggests that Machiavellians’ approach to emotion regulation is linked to their rational mode of thinking.     

The Anatomy of Revolutionists

A questionnaire containing 62 items relating to the New Left and 28 items measuring anomia, authoritarianism, and Machiavellianism was given to 153 entering freshmen at Columbia in the fall of 1968. The five factors emerging from a factor analysis of responses to the items were labeled: New Left Philosophy, Revolutionary Tactics, Machiavellian Tactics, Machiavellian Cynicism, and Traditional Moralism. Students who had been politically active prior to coming to college scored higher than the rest of the group on New Left Philosophy, Revolutionary Tactics, and Machiavellian Cynicism, but scored lower on Machiavellian'Tactics and Traditional Moralism. In the spring of 1969, a revised set of items was given to students in introductory psychology classes at Columbia University and New York University. While the findings from these subjects replicated those found with the Columbia freshmen, they showed subtle differences which led to speculations about the radicalization process. Also discussed are the relationships between the nature of political participation and all of the factors, with special emphasis on the discrepancy between Machiavellian Tactics and Cynicism.     

The Relationship Between Machiavellianism and Knowledge Sharing Willingness

Knowledge sharing has become a legitimate and important organizational activity. Over the last two decades, firms have become creative in their efforts to make knowledge sharing take place. Meanwhile, Machiavellian orientation has been regarded as one of the most important variables in the study of management and organizational behavior for the last three decades. However, the existing literature does not offer any measure of relationships between Machiavellianism and knowledge sharing willingness. Therefore, this research aims to explore the relationship between Machiavellianism and knowledge sharing willingness. With a total of 325 valid questionnaires completed by employees, the paper presents some conclusive and valuable suggestions for businesses and scholars alike.     

Girls' and boys' developing interests in math and science: do parents matter?

Previous studies (for example, Bregman & Killen, 1999; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Jacobs, 1991;Jacobs & Eccles, 2000) have demonstrated the important role that parents' attitudes play in shaping their children's later self-perceptions and achievement behaviors. Studies indicate that in the math and science arena, parents' perceptions of their children's abilities as well as their own values about math and science are related to their children's later self-perceptions and values for achieving in these domains. The previous work suggests that parents are conveying their attitudes and values about math to their children through their words and actions; however, little research has documented the ways in which parents' beliefs and specific behaviors might promote positive achievement attitudes and behaviors in their children. The goal of the study reported here was to document relations between parents' math and science--promotive behaviors and attitudes and their children's later activity choices, values, and achievement in these subjects.     

Associations between the school-related beliefs of Mexican-American and Anglo-American mothers and children

Mexican-American and Anglo-American mothers' beliefs about their children's school related competence in the areas of academics and behavioral conduct, as well as their beliefs about their own academic competence, were assessed at the beginning of the children's kindergarten year. Mother-child dyads discussed the children's typical school experiences on four occasions during the school year, and children's beliefs were assessed at the end of the year. Pearson correlation coefficients indicated that strong associations between Anglo-American mothers' and children's beliefs existed, and partial correlation coefficients indicated that mother-child discourse contributed to many of these relations. Direct associations between mothers' and children's beliefs were not found for Mexican-American dyads, although mother-child discourse was linked to beliefs. The results suggest that dyads' conversations may serve as a means of transmitting beliefs about school-related competence, and that the this transmission may be more bidirectional in Mexican-American dyads.     

儿童资源获取行为对学校适应的影响——一个历时5年的跨文化追踪

以160名中国儿童和133名加拿大儿童为被试,采用实验室观察和问卷调查,考察儿童7岁时的资源获取行为对其11岁时学校适应的影响。结果表明：（1）轮流规则行为对儿童的学校适应具有消极的预测作用,且存在性别差异：男孩的轮流规则行为可以显著正向预测其焦虑,女孩的轮流规则行为可以显著负向预测其学校态度;（2）请求行为可以显著正向预测中国儿童攻击行为,加拿大儿童则没有发现该关系;（3）对于资源获取失败次数少的儿童,求助成人行为有积极的适应意义;（4）儿童资源获取行为的结果在儿童7岁时资源获取行为与11岁时学校适应之间发挥调节作用;对于资源获取成功次数少的儿童,请求行为可以显著地正向预测其攻击行为;对于资源获取失败次数少的儿童,请求行为则显著地负向预测其攻击行为,求助成人行为可以显著地负向预测其孤独感。     

The personality traits of workplace bullies are often shared by their victims: Is there a dark side to victims?

In this exploratory study, we examined the extent to which both workplace bullies and victims possess bully-typifying traits, using a 22-item scale that simultaneously measures perpetrators and targets of negative workplace acts. Participants were 224 Canadian university students aged 18–47 with prior work experience. Bivariate correlational analyses determined that bullying others was positively associated with measures of Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychoticism, aggression, and disinhibition. Being a victim was positively associated with the same Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychoticism, and aggression measures. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that an “alternative dark triad” of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychoticism related significantly to bullying scores; while psychoticism and Machiavellianism related significantly to victim scores. Aggression and sensation seeking measures failed to account for significant variance in bully or victim scores beyond the triad variables. The vast majority of bullies (89.7%) and many victims (41.7%) were bully/victims, operationally defined as being both perpetrators and targets at least once per week in the last 6 months. Researchers and employers would do well to recognize the presence of bully/victims in their efforts to understand and reduce workplace bullying.     

Explorations in employee envy: Feeling envious and feeling envied

Two aspects of envy at work (i.e., feeling envied by others and feeling envy toward others) were studied with 222 first-level supervisors. Results supported predictions concerning the previously unstudied construct of feeling envied by others (i.e., associations were identified with job longevity, Machiavellianism, and sense of competitive reward), as well as replicated earlier findings for feeling envy toward others (i.e., associations were identified with self-esteem, Machiavellianism, leader-member exchange, sense of competitive reward, and job dissatisfaction). Also, employee Machiavellianism and leader-member exchange were found to interact for the dependent variable of being the target of coworker envy such that in-group members who were highly Machiavellian reported the greatest sense of being envied by coworkers.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Machiavellian Personality Scale

According to Christie and Geis (1970), Machiavellianism predisposes one to self-interested behavior, manipulation, and deceit often at the expense of others. The measurement of Machiavellianism began with the Mach IV (Christie & Geis, 1970), which has long suffered from an indeterminant factor structure and poor reliability. Dahling, Whitaker, and Levy (2009) developed the Machiavellian Personality Scale (MPS) to address these shortcomings. In the current examination of the MPS, a four-factor structure is supported with confirmatory factor analysis, but the relationships in a full structural equation model between the four subscales and the criterion of empathy is problematic in that some MPS subscales are negative, some positive, and some unrelated to empathy. Additionally, reliability issues arose with the MPS as have historically occurred with the Mach IV. The four subscales of the MPS appear to act as suppressors of each other, further complicating the predictive relationship between Machiavellianism and other variables.     

Prediction of children's empathy-related responding from their effortful control and parents' expressivity

In this study, the linear and interactive relations of children's effortful control and parents' emotional expressivity to children's empathy-related responses were examined. Participants were 214 children, 4.5 to 8 years old. Children's effortful control was negatively related to their personal distress and was positively related to their sympathy. Parents' positive expressivity was marginally negatively related to children's personal distress and was marginally positively related to children's dispositional sympathy. Parents' negative expressivity was positively related to children's personal distress, but primarily at high levels of children's effortful control. Moreover, parents' negative expressivity was negatively related to children's situational sympathy at low levels of effortful control but was positively related to children's dispositional sympathy at high levels of effortful control. There were also quadratic relations between the measures of parents' expressivity and children's empathy-related responses.     

The relations of parental emotional expressivity with quality of Indonesian children's social functioning

In Western societies, parental expression of positive emotion has been positively related to the quality of children's social functioning, whereas their expression of negative emotion has been negatively or inconsistently related. The relations of parental expressivity to 3rd-grade Indonesian children's dispositional regulation, socially appropriate behavior, popularity, and sympathy were examined. Parents, teachers, and peers reported on children's social functioning and regulation, and parents (mostly mothers) reported on their own expression of emotion in the family. Generally, parental expression of negative emotion was negatively related to the quality of children's social functioning, and regression analyses indicated that the relations of parental negative expressivity to children's popularity and externalizing behaviors might be indirect through their effects on children's regulation. Unexpectedly, parental expression of positive emotion was unrelated to children's social functioning.     

Self-disclosure as an influence strategy: Effects of machiavellianism,androgyny, and sex

In a study linking the characteristics of androgyny and Machiavellianism to the use of self-disclosure, participants were asked to complete two writing tasks. The tasks consisted of an influence situation (soliciting donations) and an affiliative situation (getting acquainted). The hypotheses were that Machiavellian females would be more self-disclosing on the influence task, androgynous individuals would be more self-disclosing on the affiliative task, and that the affiliative task would elicit more self-disclosure than the influence task. Results indicated that Machiavellian males were actually more self-disclosing on the influence task, and non-Machiavellian males were more self-disclosing on the affiliative task. Higher self-disclosure overall was elicited by the affiliative task, and there was some support for the hypothesis that androgynous individuals are more self-disclosing in an affiliative task.We would like to thank Florence L. Geis and Paul Harris for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper, and Richard Hall for his assistance in judging self-disclosure.