Conceptual and Empirical Perspectives on the Rorschach Assessment of Psychopathology

Conceptual and empirical perspectives on the Rorschach assessment of psychopathology are described and placed in a complementary perspective that stresses the value of conceptual formulations and the necessity of empirical data. Empiricism without concepts fails to explain adequately why Rorschach assessment yields useful information; conceptualization without empirical support fails to document adequately the psychometric soundness of Rorschach inferences. Used in tandem, explanatory concepts and supportive data enhance the scientific Stature and professional utility of Rorschach assessment.     

Current perspectives on Rorschach performance among older adults

Review of empirical studies of Rorschach performance by older adults (age 65+) indicates that previous research findings of declining cognitive flexibility and impoverishment of personality may be artifacts of design methodologies that have failed to adequately account for biosocial-psychological differences between age groups and within the older age group itself. When findings are assessed in terms of variables reflective of age cohort as well as residential status, diagnosis, health status, and test-taking attitude, important data become available. Suggestions concerning test interpretation are offered in lieu of the current lack of age matched base rates for Rorschach scoring variables.     

The concurrent validity of child Rorschach interpretations

Rorschach records were obtained by 10 examiners from 59 preschool children. These records were reliably scored and interpreted. Interpretation consisted of preparing a list of Rorschach concepts for each child. An additional number of Rorschach concepts of equal frequency in this sample were added to each child's list of concepts. Half of the concepts on each child's list were checked for agreement by school personnel. The children were described with consistency across judges and over time by the same judges. The school personnel were able to differentiate concepts that described each child from nonrelevant concepts. The Rorschach concepts provided data that was validated by teacher perception of these children. This methodology for Rorschach validation makes use of interpretive concepts derived directly from data rather than from reports.     

A consideration of challenges to psychological assessment instruments used in forensic settings: Rorschach as exemplar

In this brief primer, we provide an outline of key issues that will help psychologists organize and prepare their expert testimony. These issues include the need to obtain essential sources of research, a review of the actual legal standards regarding admissibility of test data in expert testimony, the nature of the expert relative to the assessment instrument in expert testimony, the nature of legal versus scientific debate, and the examination of appropriate qualifications of expertise when offering legal testimony. In addition, we use a summary of information contained in several recent articles to address challenges directed against forensic psychological testing. We use the empirical literature on the Rorschach as an exemplar in discussing these issues, as the admissibility of the Rorschach in particular has been challenged, and the issues frequently focused on with the Rorschach are equally applicable to other psychological measures. In this article, we provide essential sources of Rorschach research regarding several empirical studies that summarize important information and directly address previous criticisms of the measure.     

Psychological tests don't think: an appreciation of Schafer's Psychoanalytic Interpretation in Rorschach Testing

Roy Schafer 's Psychoanalytic Interpretation in Rorschach Testing has, for nearly 40 years, represented a hallmark of psychodynamically informed psychological assessment. In this article, Schafer's contribution is reviewed in light of recent contributions to the Rorschach literature. Following a summary of the main sections of the work, Schafer's approach to the Rorschach is critically re-examined from the perspective of modem assessment practice. Differences between the epistemological bases of psychoanalytic and empirical methods of Rorschach interpretation are highlighted, and the prospects for an integration of these two approaches are considered. It is concluded that Schafer's contribution remains as fresh today as when written 40 years ago.     

Psychological Tests Don't Think: An Appreciation of Schafer's Psychoanalytic Interpretation In Rorschach Testing

Roy Schafer 's Psychoanalytic Interpretation in Rorschach Testing has, for nearly 40 years, represented a hallmark of psychodynamically informed psychological assessment. In this article, Schafer's contribution is reviewed in light of recent contributions to the Rorschach literature. Following a summary of the main sections of the work, Schafer's approach to the Rorschach is critically re-examined from the perspective of modem assessment practice. Differences between the epistemological bases of psychoanalytic and empirical methods of Rorschach interpretation are highlighted, and the prospects for an integration of these two approaches are considered. It is concluded that Schafer's contribution remains as fresh today as when written 40 years ago.     

Phenomenology, Bruno Klopfer, and individualized/collaborative assessment

This presentation celebrates commonalities of Bruno Klopfer's philosophical phenomenological approach to the Rorschach and my similarly grounded approach to individualized/collaborative psychological assessment. The article begins with an excerpt from such an assessment to ground what follows. It then addresses what phenomenology is and is not in relation to psychological assessment, and reviews Klopfer's phenomenological approach to the Rorschach. It presents the findings from an empirical phenomenological research study relevant to collaborative assessment. Finally, the article reviews some common inquiries and observations about individualized/colloaborative assessment and closes with some shifts in American psychology that are consonant with this approach to psychological assessment.     

Predicting DMS-IV cluster B personality disorder criteria from MMPI-2 and Rorschach data: a test of incremental validity

Despite their frequent conjoint clinical use, the incremental validity of Rorschach (Rorschach, 1921/1942) and MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) data has not been adequately established, nor has any study to date explored the incremental validity of these tests for predicting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) personality disorders (PDs). In a reanalysis of existing data, we used select Rorschach variables and the MMPI PD scales to predict DSM-IV antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic PD criteria in a sample of treatment-seeking outpatients. The correlational findings revealed alimited relation between Rorschach and MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) variables, with only 5 of 30 correlations reaching significance (p <.05). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both the MMPI and Rorschach data add incrementally in the prediction of DSM-IV borderline and narcissistic PD total criteria scores. The findings were less clear for the incremental value of Rorschach and MMPI-2 data in predicting the total number of DSM-IV histrionic PD criteria, which were best predicted by Rorschach data, and antisocial PD criteria, which were best predicted by MMPI-2 data. In addition to providing evidence of the incremental validity of Rorschach data, these findings also shed light on the psychological characteristics of the DSM-IV Cluster B PDs.     

An evaluation of the effects of Rorschach EB style on the diagnostic utility of the Depression Index

Several empirical studies have found the Rorschach Depression Index (DEPI) to have questionable diagnostic utility. Studies using adolescent samples suggest that the DEPI has limited sensitivity and fails to differentiate effectively between adolescents with and without depression diagnoses. The present study was conducted to evaluate Viglione, Brager, and Haller's suggestion that the DEPI may have better discriminative ability for individuals with extratensive problem-solving styles, measured by the Rorschach EB (Erlebnistypus) variable, compared to those with introversive and ambitent styles. Comparisons were conducted between adolescents with depression-related diagnoses and adolescents with other diagnoses for each of the three EB groups. The results failed to support the hypothesized greater discriminative power of DEPI for depressed extratensives, and suggest caution in using the DEPI to evaluate adolescent depression.     

Contributions of cognitive science to the Rorschach Technique: cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the response process

This article presents an understanding of the Rorschach Technique in terms of emergent models from cognitive science. We propose a linkage between cognitive psychology and neuropsychology in understanding the operations that underlie the Rorschach response process. Contemporary information processing models are described. The Rorschach Technique is conceived of as a complex process involving all areas of the cerebral hemispheres, encompassing various aspects of visual attention and perception, object recognition, associative memory, language production, and executive functioning. Exner's model of the response process is delineated, including both Association and Inquiry phases, in terms of requisite underlying neuropsychological abilities and anatomical substrates. The question of the Rorschach Technique's status, utility, and potential as a neuropsychological assessment, tool is discussed. Understanding the Rorschach in terms of contemporary cognitive psychological and neuropsychological models heightens appreciation of the technique's complexity and provides a heuristic and conceptual foundation for empirical research.     

Predicting DSM-IV Cluster B Personality Disorder Criteria From MMPI-2 and Rorschach Data: A Test of Incremental Validity

Despite their frequent conjoint clinical use, the incremental validity of Rorschach (Rorschach, 1921/1942) and MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) data has not been adequately established, nor has any study to date explored the incremental validity of these tests for predicting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) personality disorders (PDs). In a reanalysis of existing data, we used select Rorschach variables and the MMPI PD scales to predict DSM-IV antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic PD criteria in a sample of treatment-seeking outpatients. The correlational findings revealed a limited relation between Rorschach and MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) variables, with only 5 of 30 correlations reaching significance (p < .05). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both the MMPI and Rorschach data add incrementally in the prediction of DSM-IV borderline and narcissistic PD total criteria scores. The findings were less clear for the incremental value of Rorschach and MMPI-2 data in predicting the total number of DSM-IV histrionic PD criteria, which were best predicted by Rorschach data, and antisocial PD criteria, which were best predicted by MMPI-2 data. In addition to providing evidence of the incremental validity of Rorschach data, these findings also shed light on the psychological characteristics of the DSM-IV Cluster B PDs.     

Current Perspectives on Psychoanalytic Rorschach Assessment

In this article, I present as clear and as updated an account as possible of several of the essential features that comprise a psychoanalytic approach to the Rorschach. Specific attention is accorded the assessment frame, the language of assessment, sources of assessment information, and differing approaches to the interpretation of Rorschach data. The article comes out of a Rorschach tradition begun by Rapaport, extended by Schafer and Mayman, and presently being updated by Leichtman and Smith.     

Current perspectives on psychoanalytic Rorschach assessment

In this article, I present as clear and as updated an account as possible of several of the essential features that comprise a psychoanalytic approach to the Rorschach. Specific attention is accorded the assessment frame, the language of assessment, sources of assessment information, and differing approaches to the interpretation of Rorschach data. The article comes out of a Rorschach tradition begun by Rapaport, extended by Schafer and Mayman, and presently being updated by Leichtman and Smith.     

Geographical Directory of Membership of the Society for Projective Techniques United States and Territories

We examined empirical findings related to the integration of the Rorschach and the MMPI in assessing adolescents. Intercorrelations between 50 Rorschach variables and the 13 MMPI basic scales are reported for a clinical sample of I97 adolescents. Significant correlations only slightly exceeded the number expected by chance. A review of six additional studies of adolescent samples also generally revealed either very modest or nonsignificant relationships between the Rorschach and the MMPI. These findings leave open the possibility that combining data from the two instruments may increase incremental validity, an issue that should be assessed by using multivariate analyses. Guidelines for integrating Rorschach and MMPI data in clinical practices with adolescents are provided.     

Trends in research on the Rorschach: Review and recommendations

Meta-analyses have shown that the Rorschach and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) have roughly equivalent psychometric properties. Assessment continues to be stressed in psychological training, and the Rorschach continues to be emphasized in courses on assessment. The most frequently used test battery includes the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised or Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised, the MMPI, and projective devices such as the Rorschach or Thematic Apperception Test. A survey of the literature from 1983 to 1991 showed that research on the Rorschach concerns mainly issues of formal diagnosis and evaluation of the psychometric properties of the instrument. Such research does not evaluate the Rorschach as it is usually employed to arrive at decision about individuals. More appropriate research models are recommended, in which Rorschach data are added to or deleted from other assessment information in order to evaluate the influence of the inclusion of the Rorschach on judgments made by competent clinicians about relevant issues in individual cases.     

Monitoring psychotherapy with performance-based measures of personality functioning

In this commentary, I review a meta-analysis and three original research reports concerning the Rorschach (Exner, 2003; Rorschach, 1921/1942) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Murray, 1943) assessment in psychological treatment planning and outcome evaluation. The information in these four articles bears witness to the potential utility of performance-based personality assessment measures for this purpose. The strengths and limitations of the articles suggest several guidelines for future research designed to examine this Rorschach and TAT application including an emphasis on effectiveness studies, longitudinal data, integrated independent variables, observable dependent variables, sophisticated data analysis combining nomothetic and idiographic presentation, and the incremental contribution of performance-based measures to psychotherapy-related personality assessment.     

MMPI-Rorschach Interrelationships: Proposed Criteria for Evaluating Explanatory Models

An extensive empirical literature, spanning 50 years and 45 published investigations, leads to the conclusion that the Rorschach and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) bear little or no meaningful relationship to each other. An inherent tension exists between these empirical findings and the widespread clinical practice of integrating MMPI and Rorschach results. At least three perspectives have been advanced concerning the relationship between these two instruments. One view holds that variables from the two measures will demonstrate significant patterns of convergence only in carefully designed research studies that involve specific, well-constructed and theoretically derived predictions. A second view postulates that although variables from the Rorschach and MMPI do not bear a high intercorrelation with each other, these variables may be combined to contribute significantly to the prediction of outcome variance. In this view, the combined use of the two instruments yields clinically useful increases in incremental validity not achievable by the use of either instrument in isolation. A third approach is reflected in the proposition that although the MMPI and Rorschach do not produce significant interrelationships under general conditions, meaningful relationships may be yielded under specific psychometric conditions, for example, under conditions in which the response styles are consistently displayed across those two instruments. This article will review research evidence related to each of these perspectives, with particular emphasis on the importance of clearly specifying the criteria to be applied in evaluating these models. The concepts of parsimony and heuristic value are proposed for these evaluation purposes.     

Color blindness and Rorschach color responsivity

Color vision deficits occur in 10% of the American white male population. Thus, color blindness may invalidate diagnostic hypotheses generated from Rorschach data. The Rorschach protocols of 43 white, college male color-blind subjects were compared to the protocols of normally sighted controls. The color-blind group manifested fewer pure "C" responses. No significant between group differences emerged for any of the other primary Rorschach color variables. Pure "C" responses rarely figure prominently in Rorschach evaluations, and the apparent lowered frequency of these responses by the color-blind is insufficient to warrant modification of current Rorschach practice. The data suggest that color blindness is unlikely to confound Rorschach assessment.     

MMPI-Rorschach interrelationships: proposed criteria for evaluating explanatory models

An extensive empirical literature, spanning 50 years and 45 published investigations, leads to the conclusion that the Rorschach and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) bear little or no meaningful relationship to each other. An inherent tension exists between these empirical findings and the widespread clinical practice of integrating MMPI and Rorschach results. At least three perspectives have been advanced concerning the relationship between these two instruments. One view holds that variables from the two measures will demonstrate significant patterns of convergence only in carefully designed research studies that involve specific, well-constructed and theoretically derived predictions. A second view postulates that although variables from the Rorschach and MMPI do not bear a high intercorrelation with each other, these variables may be combined to contribute significantly to the prediction of outcome variance. In this view, the combined use of the two instruments yields clinically useful increases in incremental validity not achievable by the use of either instrument in isolation. A third approach is reflected in the proposition that although the MMPI and Rorschach do not produce significant interrelationships under general conditions, meaningful relationships may be yielded under specific psychometric conditions, for example, under conditions in which the response styles are consistently displayed across those two instruments. This article will review research evidence related to each of these perspectives, with particular emphasis on the importance of clearly specifying the criteria to be applied in evaluating these models. The concepts of parsimony and heuristic value are proposed for these evaluation purposes.     

The Stress Tolerance Test

The Stress Tolerance Test combines principles and concepts from the Rorschach and TAT methods. Subjects write answers to standard questions about their impressions of slide-projected pictures of dramatic combat scenes designed to elicit stress responses among military personnel. Developed during World War II, this instrument has had little subsequent use. Its potential for yielding useful assessment information is illustrated in hopes of reawakening interest in it.