Sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects during strategy execution: An event-related potential study in arithmetic

When participants accomplish cognitive tasks, they obtain poorer performance if asked to execute a poorer strategy than a better strategy on a given problem. These poorer-strategy effects are smaller following execution of a poorer strategy relative to following a better strategy. To investigate ERP correlates of sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects, we asked participants (n = 20) to accomplish a computational estimation task (i.e., provide approximate products to two-digit multiplication problems like 38 × 74). For each problem, they were cued to execute a better versus a poorer strategy. We found event-related potentials signatures of sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects in two crucial windows (i.e., between 200 and 550 ms and between 850 and 1250 ms) associated with executive control mechanisms and allowing conflict monitoring between the better and the cued strategy. These results have important implications on theories of strategies as they suggest that sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects involve earlier as well as later mechanisms of cognitive control during strategy execution.     

The association of physical activity to neural adaptability during visuo-spatial processing in healthy elderly adults: A multiscale entropy analysis

Physical activity has been shown to benefit brain and cognition in late adulthood. However, this effect is still unexplored in terms of brain signal complexity, which reflects the level of neural adaptability and efficiency during cognitive processing that cannot be acquired via averaged neuroelectric signals. Here we employed multiscale entropy analysis (MSE) of electroencephalography (EEG), a new approach that conveys important information related to the temporal dynamics of brain signal complexity across multiple time scales, to reveal the association of physical activity with neural adaptability and efficiency in elderly adults. A between-subjects design that included 24 participants (aged 66.63 ± 1.31 years; female = 12) with high physical activity and 24 age- and gender-matched low physical activity participants (aged 67.29 ± 1.20 years) was conducted to examine differences related to physical activity in performance and MSE of EEG signals during a visuo-spatial cognition task. We observed that physically active elderly adults had better accuracy on both visuo-spatial attention and working memory conditions relative to their sedentary counterparts. Additionally, these physically active elderly adults displayed greater MSE values at larger time scales at the Fz electrode in both attention and memory conditions. The results suggest that physical activity may be beneficial for adaptability of brain systems in tasks involving visuo-spatial information. MSE thus might be a promising approach to test the effects of the benefits of exercise on cognition.     

Task-specificity of balance training

Despite much research on balance training, it is still unclear whether balance training leads to highly task-specific adaptations or rather non-specific adaptations. Hence, in this study we examined whether balance training increased performance only in the balance task that was trained or also in non-trained tasks. Forty healthy participants (28 m 12 f, 25 ± 4 years, 177 ± 10 cm, 73 ± 14 kg) were assigned to one of two training groups (TGs) or a control group. Both TGs completed six sessions over 2 weeks, only the training device differed. Before and after the training, performance in the trained task as well as in additional untrained tasks was recorded. ANOVAs showed that each TG outperformed the other groups only in the task they had trained (e.g., task trained by TG1: +225% in TG1, only +41% and +30% in TG2 and control, group * time interaction, p < 0.001; Untrained task 1: TG1 +48%, TG2 +48%, and control +30%, no significant interaction, p = 0.72). In summary, 2 weeks of balance training resulted in highly task-specific effects, no transfer even to very similar tasks was observed. Therefore, we recommend identifying and training exactly those tasks that need improvement, and test the efficacy of training programs using specific tests instead of general tests with limited functional relevance.     

Do kinematic metrics of walking balance adapt to perturbed optical flow?

Visual (i.e., optical flow) perturbations can be used to study balance control and balance deficits. However, it remains unclear whether walking balance control adapts to such perturbations over time. Our purpose was to investigate the propensity for visuomotor adaptation in walking balance control using prolonged exposure to optical flow perturbations. Ten subjects (age: 25.4 ± 3.8 years) walked on a treadmill while watching a speed-matched virtual hallway with and without continuous mediolateral optical flow perturbations of three different amplitudes. Each of three perturbation trials consisted of 8 min of prolonged exposure followed by 1 min of unperturbed walking. Using 3D motion capture, we analyzed changes in foot placement kinematics and mediolateral sacrum motion. At their onset, perturbations elicited wider and shorter steps, alluding to a more cautious, general anticipatory balance control strategy. As perturbations continued, foot placement tended toward values seen during unperturbed walking while step width variability and mediolateral sacrum motion concurrently increased. Our findings suggest that subjects progressively shifted from a general anticipatory balance control strategy to a reactive, task-specific strategy using step-to-step adjustments. Prolonged exposure to optical flow perturbations may have clinical utility to reinforce reactive, task-specific balance control through training.     

Applying an active lumbopelvic control strategy during lumbar extension exercises: Effect on muscle recruitment patterns of the lumbopelvic region

ObjectiveExamine whether implementing an active lumbopelvic control strategy during high load prone lumbar extension exercises affects posterior extensor chain recruitment and lumbopelvic kinematics.MethodsThirteen healthy adults acquired an optimal active lumbopelvic control strategy during guided/home-based training sessions. During the experimental session electromyography was used to evaluate the activity of the posterior extensor chain muscles during high load trunk/bilateral leg extension exercises with/without application of the strategy. Video-analysis was used to evaluate thoracic/lumbar/hip angles.ResultsImplementing the active lumbopelvic control strategy decreased the lordotic angle during trunk (p = 0.045; −3.2°) and leg extension exercises (p = 0.019; −10°). The hip angle was solely affected during trunk extension (p < 0.001; +9.2°). The posterior extensor chain (i.e. mean of the relative activity of all muscles (%MVIC) was recruited to a higher extent (p = 0.026; +9%) during trunk extension exercises performed with active lumbopelvic control. Applying the strategy during leg extension exercises lead to less activity of longissimus thoracic (p = 0.015; −10.2%) and latissimus dorsi (p = 0.010; −4.4%), and increased gluteus maximus activity (p ≤ 0.001; +16.8%).ConclusionsWhen healthy people are taught/instructed to apply an active lumbopelvic control strategy, this will decrease the degree of lumbar (hyper)lordosis and this influences the recruitment patterns of trunk and hip extensors. Hence, the possible impact on predetermined training goals should be taken into account by trainers.     

Attention lapses and behavioural microsleeps during tracking,psychomotor vigilance,and dual tasks

This study examined the incidence of attention lapses and microsleeps under contrasting levels of task complexity during three tasks: PVT, 2-D tracking and a dual task combining the two. More attention lapses per participant (median 15 vs. 3; range 1–74 vs. 0–76, p = 0.001), with the greatest increase with time spent-on-task (p = 0.002), were evident on the more cognitively-demanding dual task than on the PVT. Conversely, fewer microsleeps (median 0 vs. 0; range 0–1 vs. 0–18, p = 0.022) occurred during the more complex task compared to the tracking task. An increase in microsleep rate with time spent-on-task (p = 0.035) was evident during the tracking task but not the dual task. These results indicate that the higher cognitive load, associated with an increase in task complexity, increased the likelihood of attention lapses, while a reduction in task complexity increased the likelihood of microsleeps.     

Intensive video gaming improves encoding speed to visual short-term memory in young male adults

The purpose of this study was to measure the effect of action video gaming on central elements of visual attention using Bundesen's (1990) Theory of Visual Attention.To examine the cognitive impact of action video gaming, we tested basic functions of visual attention in 42 young male adults. Participants were divided into three groups depending on the amount of time spent playing action video games: non-players (< 2 h/month, N = 12), casual players (4–8 h/month, N = 10), and experienced players (> 15 h/month, N = 20). All participants were tested in three tasks which tap central functions of visual attention and short-term memory: a test based on the Theory of Visual Attention (TVA), an enumeration test and finally the Attentional Network Test (ANT). The results show that action video gaming does not seem to impact the capacity of visual short-term memory. However, playing action video games does seem to improve the encoding speed of visual information into visual short-term memory and the improvement does seem to depend on the time devoted to gaming. This suggests that intense action video gaming improves basic attentional functioning and that this improvement generalizes into other activities. The implications of these findings for cognitive rehabilitation training are discussed.     

Bicyclists’ speed adaptation strategies when conducting self-paced vs. system-paced smartphone tasks in traffic

The increasing prevalence of mobile phone usage while cycling has raised concerns, even though the number of cyclists involved in accidents does not increase at a comparable rate. A reason for this may be how cyclists adapt travelling speed and task execution to the current traffic situation. The aim of this study is to investigate speed adaptation among cyclists when conducting self-paced (initiated by the cyclist) vs. system-paced (initiated by somebody else) smartphone tasks in real traffic.Twenty-two cyclists completed a track in real traffic while listening to music, receiving and making calls, receiving and sending text messages, and searching for information on the internet. The route and the types of tasks were controlled, but the cyclists could choose rather freely when and where along the route to carry out the tasks, thus providing semi-naturalistic data on compensatory behaviour.The results clearly show that cyclists use conscious strategies to adapt their speed to accommodate the execution of secondary phone tasks. Regarding tactical behaviour, it was found that cyclists kept on cycling in 80% of the system-paced cases and in 70% of the self-paced cases. In the remaining cases, the cyclists chose to execute the phone task while standing still or when walking. Compared to the baseline (17.6 ± 3.5 km/h), the mean speed was slightly increased when the cyclists listened to music (18.2 ± 3.7 km/h) and clearly decreased when they interacted with the phone (13.0 ± 5.0 km/h). The speed reduction profile differed between self-paced and system-paced tasks with a preparatory speed reduction before task initiation for self-paced tasks.In conclusion, when the cyclists had the chance they either stopped or adapted their speed proactively to accommodate the execution of the phone task. For self-paced tasks, the speed reduction was finalised before task initialisation, and for system-paced tasks the speed adaptation occurred in reaction to the incoming task. It is recommended to investigate whether the observed compensatory behaviour is enough to offset the possible negative effects of smartphone use.     

Motor expertise and performance in spatial tasks: A meta-analysis

The present study aimed to provide a summary of findings relevant to the influence of motor expertise on performance in spatial tasks and to examine potential moderators of this effect. Studies of relevance were those in which individuals involved in activities presumed to require motor expertise were compared to non-experts in such activities. A final set of 62 effect sizes from 33 samples was included in a multilevel meta-analysis. The results showed an overall advantage in favor of motor experts in spatial tasks (d = 0.38). However, the magnitude of that effect was moderated by expert type (athlete, open skills/ball sports, runner/cyclist, gymnast/dancers, musicians), stimulus type (2D, blocks, bodies, others), test category (mental rotation, spatial perception, spatial visualization), specific test (Mental Rotations Test, generic mental rotation, disembedding, rod-and-frame test, other), and publication status. These findings are discussed in the context of embodied cognition and the potential role of activities requiring motor expertise in promoting good spatial performance.     

Making sense of age-related distractibility: The critical role of sensory modality

Older adults are known to have reduced inhibitory control and therefore to be more distractible than young adults. Recently, we have proposed that sensory modality plays a crucial role in age-related distractibility. In this study, we examined age differences in vulnerability to unimodal and cross-modal visual and auditory distraction. A group of 24 younger (mean age = 21.7 years) and 22 older adults (mean age = 65.4 years) performed visual and auditory n-back tasks while ignoring visual and auditory distraction. Whereas reaction time data indicated that both young and older adults are particularly affected by unimodal distraction, accuracy data revealed that older adults, but not younger adults, are vulnerable to cross-modal visual distraction. These results support the notion that age-related distractibility is modality dependent.     

Adaptations to walking on an uneven terrain for individuals with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder

Given the importance of walking in everyday life, understanding why this is challenging for some populations is particularly important. Studies focusing on gait patterns of individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have shown that whilst increased variability is characteristic of walking patterns for this group, differences in spatio-temporal gait variables seem only to arise when task demands increase. However, these differences occur under rather artificial conditions, for example using a treadmill. The aim of this study, therefore was to examine the step characteristics of individuals with and without DCD whilst walking along an irregular terrain. Thirty-five individuals with DCD aged 8–32 years and 35 age and gender-matched controls participated in this study. Participants were divided into 3 age groups; 8–12 years (n = 12), 13–17 years (n = 12) and 18–32 years (n = 11). Participants walked up and down a 6 m walkway for two minutes on two terrains: level and irregular. VICON 3D motion analysis was used to extract measures of foot placement, velocity and angle of the head and trunk. Results showed that both groups adapted their gait to negotiate the irregular terrain, but the DCD group was more affected than their TD peers; walking significantly slower with shorter, wider steps and inclining their head more towards the ground. This suggests an adaptive approach used by individuals with DCD to preserve stability and increase visual sampling whilst negotiating an irregular terrain.     

Parent perfectionism and psychopathology symptoms and child perfectionism

Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct associated with various psychological problems. Studies regarding risk factors for perfectionism are scarce but evidence suggests that parents may be highly involved in their child’s perfectionism. The present study included 160 children aged 8–17 years (67 males, 93 females) and their parents. Relationships between parent and child perfectionism and between parent psychopathology and child perfectionism were examined across 5 age groups (8–9 years, 10–11 years, 12–13 years, 14–15 years, 16–17 years). Self-oriented perfectionism was highest among children aged 16–17 years. Maternal perfectionism and maternal psychopathology predicted child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. Maternal anxiety mediated the relationship between maternal other-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism in children aged 8–12 years. Maternal perfectionism and psychopathology may constitute risk factors for child perfectionism. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for theories of perfectionism.     

Reducing postural sway by concurrently performing challenging cognitive tasks

The present experiment varied cognitive complexity and sensory modality on postural control in young adults. Seventeen participants (23.71 ± 1.99 years) were instructed to stand feet together on a force platform while concurrently performing cognitive tasks of varying degrees of difficulty (easy, moderate and difficult). The cognitive tasks were presented both, auditorily and visually. Auditory tasks consisted of counting the occurrence of one or two letters and repeating a string of words. Visual tasks consisted of counting the occurrence of one or two numbers. With increasing cognitive demand, area of 95% confidence ellipse and ML sway variability was significantly reduced. The visual tasks reduced ML sway variability, whereas the auditory tasks increased COP irregularity. We suggest that these findings are primarily due to an increase in sensorimotor integration as a result of a shift in attentional focus.     

Finger counting habit and spatial–numerical association in children and adults

Sensory-motor experiences are known to build up concrete and abstract concepts during the lifespan. The present study aimed to test how finger counting habits (right-hand vs. left-hand starters) could influence the spatial–numerical representation in number-to-position (explicit) and digit-string bisection (implicit) tasks. The subjects were Italian primary school children (N = 184, from the first to the fifth year) and adults (N = 42). No general preference for right- or left-starting in the finger counting was found. In the explicit task, right- or left-starting did not affect performance. In the implicit task, the right-hand starters shifted from the left to the right space when bisecting small and large numbers respectively, while the left-hand starters shifted from the right to the left space with higher leftward bias for large numbers. The finger configuration in Italian children and adults influences the spatial–numerical representation, but only when implicit number processing is required by the task.     

German version of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire – Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS): Confirmatory factor analysis and validation

The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) is a widely used questionnaire that measures body image as a multidimensional construct. The Appearance Scales (AS) of the MBSRQ (Appearance Evaluation, Appearance Orientation, Body Areas Satisfaction, Overweight Preoccupation and Self-Classified Weight) are subscales which facilitate a parsimonious assessment of appearance-related aspects of body image. The current study tested the psychometric properties and factor structure of a German translation of the MBSRQ-AS. Participants were n = 230 female patients with the SCID diagnosis of an eating disorder and n = 293 female healthy controls. In a confirmatory factor analysis, convincing goodness-of-fit indices emerged. The subscales of the questionnaire yielded good reliability and convergent and discriminant validity coefficients, with most items showing excellent characteristics. Like the English version, the German adaptation of the questionnaire can be recommended for a multidimensional assessment of appearance-related aspects of body image in both research and clinical practice.     

Effects of disease severity and medication state on postural control asymmetry during challenging postural tasks in individuals with Parkinson’s disease

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of disease severity and medication state on postural control asymmetry during challenging tasks in individuals with Parkinson’s disease (PD). Nineteen people with PD and 11 neurologically healthy individuals performed three standing task conditions: bipedal standing, tandem and unipedal adapted standing; the individuals with PD performed the tasks in ON and OFF medication state. The participants with PD were distributed into 2 groups according to disease severity: unilateral group (n = 8) and bilateral group (n = 11). The two PD groups performed the evaluations both under and without the medication. Two force plates were used to analyze the posture. The symmetric index was calculated for various of center of pressure. ANOVA one-way (groups) and two-way (PD groups × medication), with repeated measures for medication, were calculated. For main effects of group, the bilateral group was more asymmetric than CG. For main effects of medication, only unipedal adapted standing presented effects of PD medication. There was PD groups × medication interaction. Under the effects of medication, the unilateral group presented lower asymmetry of RMS in anterior–posterior direction and area than the bilateral group in unipedal adapted standing. In addition, the unilateral group presented lower asymmetry of mean velocity, RMS in anterior–posterior direction and area in unipedal standing and area in tandem adapted standing after a medication dose. Postural control asymmetry during challenging postural tasks was dependent on disease severity and medication state in people with PD. The bilateral group presented higher postural control asymmetry than the control and unilateral groups in challenging postural tasks. Finally, the medication dose was able to reduce postural control asymmetry in the unilateral group during challenging postural tasks.     

Age-related differences in the timing aspect of lumbopelvic rhythm during trunk motion in the sagittal plane

Forward bending and backward return of the human trunk in the sagittal plane are associated with a specific lumbopelvic rhythm, which consists of magnitude and timing aspects. In this study, the age-related differences in the timing aspect of lumbopelvic rhythm were investigated using the continuous relative phase method. Specifically, the mean absolute relative phase (MARP) between the thoracic and pelvic motions as well as variation in MARP under repetitive motions, denoted by deviation phase (DP), were characterized in sixty participants between 20 and 70 years old. MARP and DP were determined for trunk forward bending and backward return tasks with self-selected slow and fast paces. The MARP and DP were both smaller (p = 0.003, p < 0.001 respectively) in the older versus younger age participants with no gender-related difference. In fast versus slow pace task, the MARP was smaller (p < 0.001) only in forward bending, whereas the DP was smaller (p < 0.001) in both the forward bending and backward return. A more in-phase and more stable lumbopelvic rhythm denoted respectively by smaller MARP and DP in older versus younger individuals maybe a neuromuscular strategy to protect the lower back tissues from excessive strain, in order to reduce the risk of injury.     

The relationship between visual attention and expertise in sports

ObjectivesGiven the prevalence of misperception and failed perception, particularly in attention-demanding team sports, surprisingly few studies have explored whether experts in team sports differ from other athletes and from non-athletes in their basic attention abilities.MethodIn this study, we examined group differences between experts in team handball (n = 40), athletes from non-team sports (n = 40), and novice athletes (n = 40) using a battery of three attention tasks: a functional field of view task, a multiple-object tracking task, and an inattentional blindness task.ResultsPerformance on the three attention tasks was largely independent, with no significant correlations among the tasks. Team sports experts showed no better performance on the basic attention tasks than did athletes from non-teams sports or novice athletes.ConclusionsThe finding that all basic attention tasks are largely independent provides preliminary support for the idea that attentional breadth, tracking performance, and inattentional blindness are distinct attentional processes. Our results demonstrate that sports expertise effects are unrelated to basic differences in attention—expertise does not appear to produce differences in basic attention and basic differences in attention do not appear to predict eventual expertise. Further experiments could focus on the ways in which more specific attentional strategies and processes contribute to sports performance.     

Searching information on the Web and Planning Fallacy: A pilot investigation of pessimistic forecasts

IntroductionAccording to Planning Fallacy, people underestimate the time required to complete a task. A review of the social, cognitive, and motivational factors that moderate Planning Fallacy suggests that variability in Web searching tasks would lead to an overestimation of retrieval time, at least when the task duration is short (about 10 minutes).ObjectiveThe goals of this pilot study are twofold: to check the accuracy of forecasts when users estimate the time required to retrieve information on the Web, and to understand users’ strategies for dealing with the Web for multipurpose documentation.MethodParticipants (n = 32) were asked how long it would take to answer four encyclopedic questions on the Web; questions were in various fields with two levels of difficulty and two types of answers (qualitative vs quantitative). We compared estimations of the time required to retrieve specific information on the Web with the actual retrieval time. Forecasts were made before and after the effective retrieval task (within-subjects design).ResultsA significant and large overestimation of the anticipated time was observed, especially for questions with a qualitative answer. The overestimation range was between 195% and 473% for mean search durations between 4.5 and 10.3 min. Task perceived difficulty was the best predictor of time anticipation (r² < 0.32). Web search self-efficacy and experience contributed slightly to the overestimation but only for easy questions.ConclusionOverestimation of the time required to complete a Web searching task (i.e. pessimistic Planning Fallacy) results from a combination of factors: short length of tasks, variability in task difficulty, and the qualitative or quantitative nature of the correct answer. Search time forecast could be used as a benchmark to improve Web usability.     

Longitudinal study of striatal activation to reward and loss anticipation from mid-adolescence into late adolescence/early adulthood

Adolescent risk-taking behavior has been associated with age-related changes in striatal activation to incentives. Previous cross-sectional studies have shown both increased and decreased striatal activation to incentives for adolescents compared to adults. The monetary incentive delay (MID) task, designed to assess functional brain activation in anticipation of reward, has been used extensively to examine striatal activation in both adult and adolescent populations. The current study used this task with a longitudinal approach across mid-adolescence and late adolescence/early adulthood. Twenty-two participants (13 male) were studied using the MID task at two time-points, once in mid-adolescence (mean age = 16.11; SD = 1.44) and a second time in late adolescence/early adulthood (mean age = 20.14; SD = .67). Results revealed greater striatal activation with increased age in high- compared to low-incentive contexts (incentive magnitude), for gain as well as for loss trials (incentive valence). Results extend cross-sectional findings and show reduced striatal engagement in adolescence compared to adulthood during preparation for action in an incentive context.