时间距离对记叙文倒叙信息表征的影响

采用移动窗口技术和探测——再认范式探讨了时间距离对记叙文倒叙信息表征的影响。本研究分为两个实验：实验1考察了在近时间距离条件下读者如何表征倒叙信息,结果发现读者会根据时间顺序,把倒叙信息整合到他们的表征中去,支持时间顺序假设;实验2考察了在远时间距离条件下读者如何表征倒叙信息,结果发现读者会根据文本叙述顺序,将倒叙信息作为背景信息整合到该事件中去,支持背景假设。上述结果表明,时间距离是影响读者如何对倒叙信息进行表征的重要因素。     

记叙文中倒叙事件的时间表征

采用移动窗口阅读技术探讨记叙文中倒叙事件的时间表征模式。实验1检验了实验材料的适宜性, 实验2、3分别采用照应句范式和探测技术探讨时间顺序假设与背景信息假设的合理性。结果发现: 当事件E1和E3间的背景关系模糊时, 支持时间顺序假设; 事件E1和E3间的背景关系突出时, 支持背景信息假设。据此可以得出: 倒叙事件与前面事件间的背景关系突出时, 其表征为E2-E3-E1-E4模式, 背景关系模糊时, 则为E1-E2-E3-E4模式。     

现实预期和意愿预期在文本阅读中的激活强度

文本阅读中,读者往往对事件的后续发展进行预期推理。预期推理有两种倾向,要么是倾向于根据客观现实条件进行的现实预期,要么是倾向于根据主观个人意愿进行的意愿预期。两个实验探讨了文本阅读中读者产生的现实预期和意愿预期的激活强度。结果发现,现实预期和意愿预期都可以在阅读中即时产生,意愿预期强于现实预期;把读者分为"情感导向型"和"非情感导向型",发现"情感导向型"的读者,阅读过程中产生的意愿预期强于现实预期,而"非情感导向型"的读者则不是。     

Using temporal information to construct, update, and retrieve situation models of narratives

Four experiments explored how readers use temporal information to construct and update situation models and retrieve them from memory. In Experiment 1, readers spontaneously constructed temporal and spatial situation models of single sentences. In Experiment 2, temporal inconsistencies caused problems in updating situation models similar to those observed previously for other dimensions of situation models. In Experiment 3, merely implied temporal order information was inferred from narratives, affecting comprehension of later sentences like explicitly stated order information. Moreover, inconsistent temporal order information prevented the creation and storage in memory of an integrated situation model. In Experiment 4, a temporal inconsistency increased processing time even if readers were unable to report the inconsistency. These results confirm the significance of the temporal dimension of situation models.     

时间维度在记叙文理解中的作用

采用事件分割范式探讨了中文条件下时间维度在记叙文理解中的作用。实验1在中文条件下重复了Speer和Zacks(2005)年的研究,结果发现读者更多将时间短语所在位置作为分割边界,表明时间转换在情景模型更新中发挥了重要作用。实验2探讨了在没有时间短语条件下读者对文本分割的情况,结果发现读者主要是按照事件单元进行分割;实验3a和3b在文本的事件单元中插入时间短语,形成时间转换与事件转换分离的条件,探讨读者在这种时间转换与事件单元转换不一致的条件下所采用的分割策略,结果表明,读者更多仍然按照事件单元转换进行分割,而且对事件单元转换的依赖强于时间转换,但同时时间短语仍对文本的分割有一定影响。上述结果表明,事件单元作为建构记叙文心理表征的核心单元,时间维度作为事件单元转换的线索,只有在标识事件转换的情况下,才能引发读者情景模型的更新。     

Readers' reality-driven and plot-driven analyses in narrative comprehension

We suggest that when readers experience narratives, their expectations about the likelihood of narrative events are informed by two types of analyses. Reality-driven analyses incorporate real-world constraints involving, for example, time and space; plot-driven analyses incorporate concerns about outcomes that emerge from the plot. We explored the interaction of these two types of analyses in the application of temporal situation models. Participants read stories in which the final episode occurred after a minute time shift (i.e., "A minute later...") or hour time shift (i.e., "An hour later..."). Our experiments assessed participants' judgments and reading times for statements describing the state of events (e.g., the possibility that characters could carry out particular behaviors) following each type of time shift. Experiments 1A and 1B demonstrated that readers are appropriately sensitive to the real concomitants of time shifts. Experiments 2A and 2B demonstrated, even so, that plot-driven preferences modify judgments and reading times away from reality-driven expectations. Our results have implications for the role of the reader in theories of narrative comprehension.     

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SITUATION MODELS IN NARRATIVE COMPREHENSION:

Abstract— In this article, we propose and test a model of how readers construct representations of the situations described in simple narratives the event-indexing model. According to the event-indexing model, events are the focal points of situations conveyed in narratives and are connected in memory along five dimensions time, space, protagonist, causality, and intentionality. The results of a verb-clustering task provide strong support for the event-indexing model.     

Human brain activity time-locked to narrative event boundaries

Readers structure narrative text into a series of events in order to understand and remember the text. In this study, subjects read brief narratives describing everyday activities while brain activity was recorded with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Subjects later read the stories again to divide them into large and small events. During the initial reading, points later identified as boundaries between events were associated with transient increases in activity in a number of brain regions whose activity was mediated by changes in the narrated situation, such as changes in characters' goals. These results indicate that the segmentation of narrated activities into events is a spontaneous part of reading, and that this process of segmentation is likely dependent on neural responses to changes in the narrated situation.     

路径转弯对语篇空间情境模型建构的影响

采用回指解决方法, 通过3个实验探讨了路径转弯对空间情境模型建构的影响机制。实验1和实验2的结果表明, 读者在建构含有路径转弯的语篇时, 在一定范围内出现了路径转弯效应。总体趋势为当语篇的空间描述简单(转弯次数<2)时, 目标句的阅读时间会随着转弯次数的增多而增长, 但当语篇的空间描述复杂(转弯次数>2)时, 不仅不再出现路径转弯效应, 反而出现了该效应的反转现象。实验3借助眼动仪监测, 运用语篇与主人公行走路线同步动态呈现模式, 让被试实时追随主人公行走路线, 控制转弯次数和路径距离, 以当前位置与回指地点间的直线距离为自变量, 探究读者在空间描述复杂时建构空间情境模型的心理机制。实验结果表明当阅读空间描述简单的语篇时, 读者建构的空间情境模型是路线型的, 通过逆向搜索的方式进行回指解决; 当语篇的空间描述较为复杂时, 读者倾向于建构地图型空间情境模型, 以俯视的视角通过空间搭桥寻找空间最短直线距离进行回指解决。     

Predictability of locomotion: Effects on updating of spatial situation models during narrative comprehension

We investigated how the updating of spatial situation models during narrative comprehension depends on the interaction of cognitive abilities and text characteristics. Participants with low verbal and visuospatial abilities and participants with high abilities read narratives in which the protagonist's motions in a fictitious building were either highly predictable or very hard to predict. In Experiment 1, high-ability readers updated spatial situation models only if the protagonist's motions were hard to predict, whereas low-ability readers did so only if the motions were highly predictable. In Experiment 2, facilitated integrative spatial processing compensated for the low-ability participants' resource limitations. As a result, both ability groups updated spatial situation models with hard-to-predict protagonist motions. These results highlight the interactions of cognitive abilities and text characteristics in spatial situation model updating.     

心理时间旅行的方向与事件情绪效价对任务自信的影响

时间是认识和定义自我的框架之一。本研究采用两个实验,探讨心理时间旅行对任务自信的影响。实验1采用自由回忆或想象过去、未来事件的操纵,结果发现：事件情绪效价影响任务自信,时间方向以事件情绪效价为中介间接影响任务自信,想象的未来事件比回忆的过去事件更积极,进而引发更高任务自信。实验2采用平衡回忆或想象事件的情绪效价的操纵,使效价与时间方向的作用相分离,结果发现：时间方向不影响任务自信,想象事件的情绪效价对任务自信的作用受到时间方向的调节。回忆过去事件时,效价不影响任务自信;而想象未来事件时,事件效价越积极,任务自信越高。对于时间旅行中的积极事件,时间旅行的方向不影响任务自信;而对于消极事件,想象未来所引发的任务自信低于回忆过去。结论：时间旅行的方向与想象事件的情绪效价共同作用于任务自信。     

Revising what readers know: Updating text representations during narrative comprehension

Reading comprehension involves not just encoding information into memory, but also updating and revising what is already known or believed. For example, as narrative plots unfold, readers often must revise the expectations they have constructed from earlier portions of text to successfully comprehend later events. Evidence suggests that such revision is by no means guaranteed. In three experiments, we examined conditions that influence readers' revision of trait-based models for story characters. Trait models are particularly relevant for examining such revision because they demonstrate resistance to change. We specifically assessed whether task instructions and content-driven refutations of earlier information would enhance the likelihood of revision. In Experiment 1, instructions to carefully consider the appropriateness of story outcomes generally facilitated revision. In Experiment 2, we removed those instructions; revision occurred only when refutations included sufficient explanation to suggest that updating was necessary. Experiment 3 further supported the influence of instructions on readers' propensities to revise. These results are informative with respect to the mechanisms that guide readers' moment-by-moment comprehension of unfolding narratives.     

Have Recommended Book Lists Changed to Reflect Current Expectations for Informational Text in K-3 Classrooms?

Despite both longstanding and recent calls for more informational text in K-3 classrooms, research indicates that narrative text remains in the majority for read alouds, classroom libraries, and instruction, thus limiting children's opportunity to experience the demands of expository text. Because national associations' recommended book lists are frequently proposed to identify books, we analyzed current lists to determine whether they include a higher percentage of expository books than 10 years ago. Our findings show a continuing prevalence of narratives suggesting the need to carefully evaluate books on such lists if the goal is to increase students' experience with expository text.     

On-line processing of topic structure by children and adults

A recent model of text processing proposed that adults construct a representation of topics during reading; a new topic is related to the representation as soon as relevant information is encountered. The present experiment tested the generality of this model for younger readers. Fourth- and sixth-grade children and college students read two hierarchically organized expository texts while reading times were recorded for initial topic sentences and specific nontopic sentences. Across ages, the major findings were (1) topic sentence reading times were shorter if a transition question informed the reader of the next topic; (2) topic sentence reading times were shorter if the new topic was directly related to the immediately preceding topic than if it was not directly related. Reading times for nontopic sentences were not affected by these manipulations. Reading times decreased as age increased, but text structure manipulations had very similar effects at all ages. The results are consistent with the general model, indicating that even young readers identify and relate expository text topics as they read.     

Repeating phrases across unrelated narratives: Evidence of text repetition effects

Research has shown that text repetition effects are limited to conditions in which the context remains consistent across the two processing episodes, particularly when readers are focused on comprehension. Despite this, we found evidence of transfer effects across unrelated narratives. In a repeated condition, an ambiguous phrase appeared in two consecutive stories. In Story A, the phrase was presented in a sarcasm-biasing context, and in Story B, the phrase was presented in a neutral context. The pattern of findings from an offline measure (Experiment 1) and a reading time measure (Experiments 2, 3, and 4) indicated that participants were more likely to interpret the phrase in Story B as sarcastic in the repeated version than in a nonrepeated version, in which the phrase was absent from Story A. We conclude that during the reading of Story B, the phrase was reactivated from memory, even though the two stories were unrelated.     

现实预期与意愿预期在文本阅读中的保持

文本阅读中, 读者往往对事件的后续发展进行预期推理。预期推理有两种倾向, 要么是倾向于根据客观现实条件进行的现实预期, 要么是倾向于根据主观的个人意愿进行的意愿预期。3个实验通过自定步调阅读范式探讨了文本阅读中读者产生的现实预期和意愿预期的保持。结果发现, 现实预期和意愿预期在长时记忆中的保持情况差异明显, 现实预期不能在长时记忆中保持, 而意愿预期则能保持; 但意愿预期也不能单独存在, 会受到现实条件的制约, 在受到现实否定后即时消退, 不再影响读者的进一步阅读。     

Characteristics of proper names and temporal memory of social news events

Long-term memory of social news events was investigated by means of a questionnaire methodology with a large sample of participants. In Experiment 1, a total of 501 university students were asked to give proper names (i.e., persons and places) that related to a certain news event, and to estimate the date of the event. The accuracy of proper names (especially person names) was superior to that of estimated date (i.e., year). In addition, telescoping effects were found in the events that occurred more than 3 years ago, but time expansion effects emerged in the events that occurred less than 2 years ago. In Experiment 2, in which 182 students participated, the accuracy of proper names and the date estimates tended to be high on the events that participants judged to be given frequent exposure by the mass media. Based on these results, we discuss long-term memory and temporal schemata regarding social news events.