The tangled web of Buddhism: an internet analysis of religious doctrinal differences

This article looks at the ways in which globalization and modernization have led to a number of changes in Buddhism. These include both the cultures in which it is practiced as well as the form that this practice takes. One consequence of existing within new cultures is that a religion that has been the majority faith for over 1000 years in many Asian countries is now a minority faith in the West. This study tests the hypothesis that religious doctrinal differences are relative and the borders between religious organizations are malleable. In order to overcome inherent difficulties in studying small atypical organizations, these analyses rely on new methodological techniques by building on the internet and website links as a sociological tool. This study examines the use of websites by American Buddhists, both to determine the networks they are part of and what content they use. Comparisons are drawn to the similarities between American Buddhism as a small foreign religion and independent non-denominational Christian congregations. Consequences for studying Buddhism and future avenues of research involving the internet are discussed.     

Buddhist psychology: A review of theory and practice

This paper gives an account of some of the major aspects of Buddhist psychology. The survey is confined to the texts of Early, or Theravada, Buddhism — that is, the canonical texts and their early Pali commentaries and related expository texts. The importance of psychological concepts in the philosophy and practice of Buddhism is highlighted. The problems inherent in the study of Buddhist psychology are discussed, including the problem of translation and interpretation. The paper then describes and analyzes several key Early Buddhist psychological notions including: basic drives that motivate behavior, perception and cognition, consciousness, personal development and enlightenment, meditation, and behavior change. The relationship between theory and practice in Buddhist psychology is commented on, with special reference to meditative techniques and other behavior change strategies. Finally, comments are made on the possible interaction between Buddhist and modern psychology. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Annual Conference of the British Psychological Society, St. Andrews, April, 1989.     

Buddhist psychology: A review of theory and practice

This paper gives an account of some of the major aspects of Buddhist psychology. The survey is confined to the texts of Early, or Theravada, Buddhism — that is, the canonical texts and their early Pali commentaries and related expository texts. The importance of psychological concepts in the philosophy and practice of Buddhism is highlighted. The problems inherent in the study of Buddhist psychology are discussed, including the problem of translation and interpretation. The paper then describes and analyzes several key Early Buddhist psychological notions including: basic drives that motivate behavior, perception and cognition, consciousness, personal development and enlightenment, meditation, and behavior change. The relationship between theory and practice in Buddhist psychology is commented on, with special reference to meditative techniques and other behavior change strategies. Finally, comments are made on the possible interaction between Buddhist and modern psychology. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Annual Conference of the British Psychological Society, St. Andrews, April, 1989.     

Mevlana Jalāl-ad-Dīn Rumi and Mindfulness

The use of mindfulness-related methods for the treatment of a variety of psychological, somatic and interpersonal problems has increased dramatically in the last decade. Almost all mindfulness-based therapies include the practice of meditation in addition to various cognitive and/or behavioral techniques. The source of inspiration for mindfulness has traditionally been Buddhism, while Islamic thought has not been present in this development despite the similarities in philosophy and a growing need for mental health support among Muslim populations throughout the world. It is in this context that Sufism and especially Rumi??s teachings seem to be promising both in terms of research on consciousness and in terms of culturally sensitive methods of healing. The aim of the present article is to highlight the commonality of mindfulness-based therapies and Rumi??s religious philosophy. Introducing concepts, images and metaphors based on Rumi??s universe can constitute a meaningful alternative to Buddhist-inspired practices in the transcultural clinic, especially in encounters with clients with Muslim background.     

Mother and father interaction with their 3-month-old infants: Similarities and differences in parenting behaviour in well-resourced parents

Infancy is characterized by intensive parenting which may affect later child development. However, little is known about similarities and differences in maternal and paternal parenting behaviour, as the majority of the studies have mainly focused on mothers. The present study investigated similarities and differences in mothers’ and fathers’ parenting behaviour during parent-infant interaction in 56 mothers and 56 fathers of 3-months-old infants in a good-resourced sample. Parent-child interactions were videotaped and coded by the Global Rating Scales. Results suggested similar parenting behaviour in terms of maternal and paternal sensitivity, intrusiveness and remoteness. Moreover, regardless of sex infant’s behaviour was similar during interactions with mothers and fathers. The low-risk and non-clinical nature of our sample may have had a positive influence on mother-child and father-child dyadic exchanges. These findings suggest including family system models in research and clinical practice.     

Secularizing Religious Practices: A Study of Subjectivity and Existential Transformation in Naikan Therapy

Adapted from a Shin Buddhist style of meditation, Naikan  (" inner-looking ")  is a week-long contemplative practice that involves reviewing one's life from the perspectives of others and has been called an indigenous Japanese psychotherapy due to its effectiveness in treating a variety of disorders. Data collected during an extended ethnographic study of Naikan in both Japan and Austria reveal that Naikan, a "secularized" practice that removes overtly Buddhist references and practices, effects changes in clients' subjectivity that are strikingly similar to those sought after in Buddhist traditions. This suggests that Naikan operates therapeutically on an existential level and employs cognitive techniques that, while originating in Buddhism, remain efficacious outside a Buddhist context. The potential for certain contemplative practices to effect transformations of subjectivity across religious and cultural contexts may be greater than commonly assumed.     

正念的心理和脑机制

正念是源于东方禅修的一种有意识、非评判的对当前状态进行注意的方法, 也是一种意识状态或心理过程。其早期研究侧重于各种身心疾病的治疗和康复等临床功效, 近年来其研究重点逐渐转向各种作用机制。在心理机制上, 正念与感知觉敏感性的变化, 注意、记忆和情绪的改善有关。在脑机制上, 它不仅与额区θ波和枕区γ波以及事件相关电位P300成分的变化有关还与前额叶、扣带回、脑岛等脑区功能激活和结构改变有关。最后, 文章指出了目前正念研究在内容和方法学上的不足以及未来研究的方向。     

Re-Creation of Rituals in Humanistic Buddhism: A Case Study of FoGuangShan

The rise of humanistic Buddhism in the early twentieth century was a direct reaction against the practice of rituals for the dead by highlighting the importance of serving and benefiting the livings in this world here and now. Nevertheless, almost one hundred years later today, rituals for the dead continue to play very important role in Humanistic Buddhism. This paper analyses the ritual theory of Master Xing Yun (星雲), one of the leading figures in contemporary Humanistic Buddhism, and examines how Fo Guang Shan—founded by Xing Yu—has recreated rituals not only for the sake of the dead but also for the spiritual advancement of living human beings. I argue that (1) Humanistic Buddhism does not entirely reject rituals; (2) ritual practice in Humanistic Buddhism has maintained the idea of transcendence of Buddhism, thus actually sanctifying the secular life of Buddhists and extending the sacred space to the public arena beyond the temple walls.     

Fields of Merit,Harvests of Health: Some Notes on the Role of Medical Karma in the Popularization of Buddhism in Early Medieval China

One of the most significant philosophical doctrines of Buddhism, and an idea that has remained at the centre of its theory and practice in virtually all historical times and places, is karma. The motivations for being involved in the accumulation of karmic merit in early medieval China were diverse, but one frequently mentioned goal was the health of the physical body. This brief article examines several facets of the relationship between karma and well-being, providing a few examples of the wide range of sources on this subject and reflecting on its role in the popularization of Buddhism in China. I argue that medical metaphors were central to how the doctrine of karma was explained to diverse audiences, that the translation of these ideas emphasized connections with indigenous beliefs and social practices and that medical karma encouraged the self-regulation of behaviour and thoughts in conformity with Buddhist ideology.     

Rethinking Early Western Buddhists: Beachcombers, ‘Going Native’ and Dissident Orientalism

Recent research on the life of U Dhammaloka and other early western Buddhists in Asia has interesting implications in relation to class, ethnicity and politics. ‘Beachcomber Buddhists’ highlight the wider situation of ‘poor whites’ in Asia—needed by empire but prone to defect from elite standards of behaviour designed to maintain imperial and racial power. ‘Going native’, exemplified by the European bhikkhu, highlights the difficulties faced by empire in policing these racial boundaries and the role of Asian agency in early ‘western’ Buddhism. Finally, such ‘dissident Orientalism’ has political implications, as with specifically Irish forms of solidarity with Asian anti-colonial movements. Within the limits imposed by the data, this article rethinks ‘early western Buddhism’ in Asia as a creative response to colonialism, shaped by Asian actors, marked by cross-racial solidarity and oriented to alternative possible futures beyond empire.     

Countercurrents from the West: “blue-eyed” Zen masters, Vipassanā meditation, and Buddhist psychotherapy in contemporary Korea

One surprising and yet relatively unknown aspect of contemporary Korean Buddhism is the significant influence of American and European Buddhism. Between 1989 and 2009, South Koreans witnessed well-educated “blue-eyed” monastic residents via the Korean media, and the emergence of new bestsellers by authors like Thich Nhat Hahn and Jack Kornfield, written initially for Western audiences but since translated into Korean. The new teachings from the West have inspired a sudden growth of interest in vipassanā meditation as an “alternative” to Kanhwa S?n practice, and the emergence of a new academic field: Buddhist psychotherapy. This new wave of transnational influence from the West has changed not only the way Koreans practice Buddhism but also how they perceive Buddhist history and their own identities. In addition, the perceived “prestige” of Buddhism in the West has provided a new rhetorical strategy to defend Buddhism against other religions, particularly Korean evangelical Christianity.     

Parenting and temperament as predictors of prosocial behaviour in Australian and Turkish Australian children

This study investigated the direct and indirect roles of parenting, child temperament and sociocultural context in predicting prosocial behaviour as identified by behavioural assessments and parent and teacher ratings. Comparisons of Australian children and Turkish children living in Australia allowed examination of cultural similarities and differences in levels of prosocial behaviours and in their predictors. Participants were 153 Australian 4–6‐year‐old children and 58 children with a Turkish background recruited from childcare centres serving low‐ and middle‐class communities. Turkish and Australian children were similar in their levels of prosocial development, but the factors that predicted prosocial behaviour were somewhat different. Hierarchical multiple regression showed that maternal warmth and child persistence predicted prosocial behaviour for the Australian sample. For the Turkish sample, obedience‐demanding behaviour had a facilitating effect upon prosocial development. The results are discussed in relation to cultural norms and their impact on children through parenting practices.     

认知与误读--宋代儒士佛教思想论略

至有宋一代,佛教已成为中国思想文化的一个重要组成部分。宋代儒士对佛教常识、佛教教义都有较深入的认知与把握,但也存在大面积的误读;宋代儒士一方面主观地批佛、排佛,另一方面却客观地成就了“批判的佛教”。宋代儒士对佛教的认识、理解和评价,不仅有助于弄清宋代新儒学与佛教之关系,也有助于进一步把握宋代学术之分野,而且可以加深我们对佛教中国化的理解。     

Conceptions and Misconceptions about “Western Buddhism”: Issues and Approaches for the Classroom

Abstract. This article responds to the exponential growth in academic textbooks on Western or American Buddhism by arguing that popular trade books written by Buddhist teachers in the West make more effective tools for teaching and learning about the growth of Buddhism in western societies. The use of such texts in the classroom provides students with opportunities to exercise critical thinking and permits instructors to avoid conveying misleading interpretations about the practice, thought, and identities of Buddhists in North America and Europe. The pedagogical advantages of using what could be described as primary sources on Western Buddhism include promoting active learning techniques, muting the differences drawn between convert and ethnic Buddhist communities, and encouraging students to become aware of and refrain from Orientalist approaches towards describing and knowing the religious and/or cultural Other. A list of practical suggestions for classroom exercises using trade books written by Buddhist teachers is provided at the end.     

Critiquing Statistics in Student and Professional Worlds

This article compares students' critiques within a class discussion about an invented statistic to STEM professionals' critiques from interviews to better understand how the situated meanings of a statistic are similar and different across student and professional worlds. We discuss similarities and differences in how participants constructed meaning for the statistic, and argue that disciplinary practices in schooling will always have an approximate, and somewhat indeterminate, relation to the figured worlds of professional practice.     

Filial Piety: Buddhists' Way in East Asia

ABSTRACT

This article introduces the Buddhist way of practicing filial piety–repaying mothers' kindness–along with a Buddhist sutra, the Sutra about the Deep Kindness of Parents and the Difficulty of Repaying it. This sutra has been widely recited, upheld, and is endeared by East Asian people for centuries. The sutra became a vehicle that helped Buddhism assimilate with the indigenous cultural tradition of China. It contains discourses about the ten types of the kindness of a mother bestows on her child, difficulties of repaying kindness, the grave consequences of being unfilial toward parents, and how to repay kindness. The historical background of Buddhists' assimilation with the Chinese cultural system, emphasis given to the mother's kindness, and certain differences and similarities between Confucians and Buddhists in the practice of filial piety are discussed.     

Liberating Language in Linji and Wittgenstein

Our aim in this paper is to explicate some unexpected and striking similarities and equally important differences, which have not been discussed in the literature, between Wittgenstein's methodology and the approach of Chinese Chan or Japanese Zen Buddhism. We say ‘unexpected’ similarities because it is not a common practice, especially in the analytic tradition, to invest very much in comparative philosophy. The peculiarity of this study will be further accentuated in the view of those of the ‘old school’ who see Wittgenstein as a logical positivist, and Zen as a religious excuse for militarism or sadomasochism. If the second claim were true, the following investigation would not only be futile but also impossible. That the first claim, concerning the ‘old school’ perspective on Wittgenstein, is incorrect, we will demonstrate in the ensuing discussion. By now more experts have come to accept this claim and we hope that our comparative perspective will add even more momentum.     

Intimate distances: William James’ introspection, Buddhist mindfulness, and experiential inquiry

The recent and growing interest in ‘mindfulness’ and ‘mindfulness meditation’ across disciplines in the West presents us with a unique opportunity to reconsider whether Buddhism has anything to offer our contemporary psychological investigations. I argue that the Buddhist-inspired practice of mindfulness has potentially profound implications for the ways in which we conduct our investigations as psychologists, and that, as a style of experiential inquiry, it has at least one Western antecedent in the early introspectionist method of William James. Both are practices of becoming aware of experience; and paradoxically becoming intimately distant with our experience. I present a non-dualistic approach in which introspection and mindfulness are seen not only as psychological but also as social practices, operating simultaneously at the boundary of the individual/inner and social/outer, collapsing such distinctions in practice, and radically undermining the distinction between self and other. While there are similarities between James’ practice of introspection and mindfulness, there are also differences, and I suggest that they should not be easily conflated. Clarifying their relationship should be helpful, not only in distinguishing them from one another, but also in pointing to how mindfulness might allow a broader application than James’ introspection once did.     

Buddhism and Counselling

The relevance of the principles and practices of Buddhism to the field of counselling is discussed. Buddhist techniques have already been used by the helping professions in many settings (e.g. Japan, Sri Lanka). The extension of their use to a wider range of settings, and to a wider group of clients, is both feasible and desirable. In addition to the obvious relevance of Buddhist techniques to clients who have a Buddhist background, it is argued that they have a wider applicability. As Buddhism espouses the notion of a productive and healthy lay life, it offers ways not only of dealing with problems and difficulties, but also of improving psychological well-being in general. Examples are cited of relevant Buddhist techniques and their application. It is argued that, once systematically evaluated, many of these could profitably be incorporated into the repertoire of techniques used in present-day counselling and therapy.