The relationship between loneliness and interpersonal trust during middle childhood

The authors administered measures of loneliness, generalized trust beliefs in peers, and trust beliefs in specific familiar peers (i.e., opposite-gender peers, same-gender peers, close same-gender peers) to a sample of 63 children (33 girls, 30 boys) from 4th and 5th grades (M age = 10 years, 6 months). They assessed children's trusting behavior by engaging them in a Prisoner's Dilemma game (reciprocal trusting) and by evaluating teachers' ratings. The authors found that, across gender, loneliness was negatively correlated with each measure of trust beliefs and trusting behavior. As expected, the relationship between children's loneliness and trust, specifically trust beliefs in same-gender peers, was stronger for girls than for boys. In support of an additive risk model, the authors found low trust beliefs in same-gender peers and low reciprocal trusting behavior with peers each statistically contributed to loneliness in girls.     

The differential effect of team members' trust on team performance: The mediation role of team cohesion

This study examines team performance as affected by various trusting relationships: trust between team members and the team's trust in their direct manager and in top management. Data for the study were collected from a survey of 690 professional elite athletes (belonging to 59 different sports clubs) playing in the regular, top professional Spanish leagues. The model was tested at the team level. Findings reveal that team member trust with respect to the different foci has both a direct and indirect effect on team performance, and that team player trust and cohesion play a mediating role. This study illustrates the dynamic relationship within teams, and, as such, trust among teammates mediates the relationship between trust in the coach as well as team cohesion in determining team performance. The implications for managing teams in other contexts are also evaluated.     

Effects of trustors' social identity complexity on interpersonal and intergroup trust

Although previous literature has revealed the effect of a single social identity on trust, only few studies have examined how multiple social identities affect trust in others. The present research examined the effects of trustors' social identity complexity on their level of trust toward another person (interpersonal trust), outgroup members (outgroup trust), and ingroup members (ingroup trust). Study 1, which was a correlational study, indicated that trustors' social identity complexity was positively related to their interpersonal and outgroup trust. Three experimental studies were performed to identify causal relationships. Study 2 found that activating trustors' high social identity complexity produced high levels of interpersonal trust, and Studies 3 and 4 found that this effect was more pronounced when the trustee was an outgroup member (outgroup trust) rather than an ingroup member (ingroup trust). The implications of these results for social harmony are discussed.     

Trust maintenance as a function of construal level and attributions: The case of apologies

When do recipients of an apology (“trustors”) base their decision to trust a perpetrator (a “trustee”) on the attributional information embedded in an apology? Attributions provide a detailed account of the trustee's causal involvement in committing a transgression. We therefore argue that trustors in a low construal level mindset use this information in their trusting decision. However, trustors in a high construal level mindset likely consider all apologies as simple statements of regret, regardless of the attributional information they contain. We find support for this argument in four laboratory experiments. This research nuances the idea that to restore trust by means of an apology, the trustee must only use an effective attribution for a negative outcome. We also present a more realistic understanding of the process leading from apologies to trust than has been offered in previous work by simultaneously considering the role of the trustor and that of the trustee in the trust restoration process.     

Interpersonal Trust and Emotion as Antecedents of Cooperation: Evidence From Korea1

In this field study (n = 514), we examined the relationships among interpersonal trust, interpersonal emotion, cooperation, and the characteristics of both the trustor and trustee at work. We found that interpersonal trust and interpersonal emotion were positively related to willingness to cooperate among members working in teams. We also found that interpersonal emotion was positively related to interpersonal trust. Interpersonal trust and interpersonal emotion, in turn, were predicted by 3 trustee characteristics: ability, benevolence, and integrity. Together, interpersonal trust, interpersonal emotion, and trustee characteristics accounted for 70% of the variance in willingness to cooperate among the team members.     

员工被上司信任感的形成机制

现有文献显示员工感知到被上司信任在工作场所中非常重要,因为这种感知会带来许多与工作相关的积极产出。虽然我们已经知道被上司信任感是如何发挥作用的,但是对它的形成机制却知之甚少。忽视这一感知的产生机制将会限制其在管理实践中的有效应用,因为被上司信任感只有被成功地激发才能使信任关系得到建立,并由此对员工的行为产生影响。作为一种由个体对信任相关信息加工而得的感知,员工被上司信任感未必等同于上司实际的信任水平。因此,要想通过让员工感知到被信任来进行有效的管理,作为授信方的上司不仅要主动做出信任的行为,更需要考虑如何让员工准确地感受到自己的信任。 基于符号互动理论和社会信息加工理论,本文构建了一个关于员工被上司信任感形成机制的理论模型。根据该模型,上司的授权与培养这两种管理行为被识别为影响员工被上司信任感产生的重要因素;授权与培养对员工被上司信任感影响的有效性依赖于员工的目标导向、上司的可信度以及团队焦虑水平;员工被上司信任感的产生会影响员工的忠诚与敬业奉献,其影响程度受制于上司所面临的管理风险。 通过揭示上司的信任行为如何以及何时能激发员工被上司信任感并由此对员工的工作行为产生影响,本研究在理论和实践上做出了三个主要的贡献。首先,被信任感不是由授信方或被信任方单独一方决定的,而是在二者的互动中形成。虽然过往研究曾检验过领导风格对被上司信任感的影响,但却未从信任互动的角度进行解释。本文识别出了授权和培养这两种可以传达典型信任信息的管理行为,从而在理论上拓展了关于被上司信任感前因的文献,在实践上为上司如何做可以让员工感受到被信任提供了新的思路。其次,尽管被上司信任感的形成有赖于社会信息加工,却鲜有研究对该过程进行过探索。根据信息加工理论,本研究对被上司信任感产生的机理及边界条件发起了新的对话。我们不仅关注信任信息加工的正反效应,还探索了信息相关度（员工目标导向）与可信度（上司可信度）对这一过程的影响。关注员工目标导向有助于识别基于信任的管理行为的有效目标人群,而关注上司可信度进一步明确了上司在相关信息传达中可能产生的积极或消极的两种不同的影响。实践上,这一探究为管理者提供了重要的指导,帮助他们有针对性地、有效地让员工感知到被信任。最后,通过探讨团队焦虑和管理风险这两个团队层面上的消极因素的调节作用,本文丰富了对上下级信任互动情境的理解。实践上,我们为管理者如何在高不确定和充满挑战性的环境中采用信任管理策略提供了启发。     

Trust,social categories,and individuals: The case of gender

While the cooperate vs. defect choice in the prisoner's dilemma is not an appropriate paradigm for the study of trust and trusting behavior, the play vs. not play choiceis. We show that femalesas a category are more trusted to cooperate — by both male and female judges — than males. Yet neither male nor female judges use gender to predict cooperation from particular individuals (trust) or as a criterion for choosing to play (trusting behavior) when they have the option of not playing particular prisoner's dilemma games. Further, in our experimental context, female and male did not differ in their cooperation rates. We speculate (a) that subjects' generalized expectations are a response to gender-based role differences outside the laboratory, (b) that subjects' failure to make individual-by-individual discriminations by gender is a response to the fact that the experimental context made such natural-world roles irrelevant, and (c) that our findings about the irrelevance of genderper se in trusting relationships will be true for other social categoriesper se.The research reported in this paper was supported by the National Science Foundation grant SES-9008157 to Orbell and Dawes; any opinions, conclusions or recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Pamela Ferrara played an important role in administering all stages of the experiments; Jean Stockard gave us a helpful methodological and substantive critique; and Debbie Elvin, Tom Morikawa, Matthew Mulford, and Catherine Shatto each helped at several stages of the paper.     

Age-related similarities and differences in first impressions of trustworthiness

Trust is a particularly under-studied aspect of social relationships in older age. In the current study, young (n = 35) and older adults (n = 35) completed a series of one-shot social economic trust games in which they invested real money with trustees. There were potential gains with each investment and also a risk of losing everything if the trustee was untrustworthy. The reputation and facial appearance of each trustee were manipulated to make them appear more or less trustworthy. Results revealed that young and older adults invest more money with trustees whose facial appearance and reputation indicate that they are trustworthy rather than untrustworthy. However, older adults were more likely than young to invest with trustees who had a reputation for being untrustworthy. We discuss whether age-related differences in responding to negative information may account for an age-related increase in trust, particularly when trusting someone with a reputation for being uncooperative.     

Group-based trust and gender differences in China

Based on the established finding that there are gender differences in the type and use of social capital, we suggest that males and females also differ in the ways they engage in intra- and inter-group interactions. An experiment was conducted to explore how gender affects group-based trust in China. The results demonstrated that male participants were significantly more trusting of unknown partners than were female participants. In addition, we found that male participants' high trust toward unknown partners had a strong relationship with expectation of reciprocity from their partners while female participants' low trust toward unknown partners was associated with a strong fear of exploitation from their partners. These findings were examined in the context of a discussion of gender differences in social capital.     

任务类型和性别属性对人际信任的影响

研究应用投资游戏任务及其变式,探讨了任务类型与性别属性对人际交往过程中信任给予和信任维持的影响。24名被试(平均年龄为20.41±1.99)通过轮组,完成了实验一和实验二的投资游戏任务。通过对投资比、返还比及其关系的比较和分析,结果发现:(1)在风险任务中,不同性别信任者的信任给予存在显著性差异,而且信任对象的性别属性对信任者的信任给予也存在显著性影响。(2)在无风险任务中,性别属性对信任对象的信任维持行为不存在显著影响,而信任者的信任给予对信任对象的行为具有显著的预测作用。这一结果表明,性别属性对人际信任的影响,与任务的风险性有关。     

4～6岁幼儿经济博弈中的信任行为及其影响因素

本研究通过两个实验考察幼儿是否在博弈任务中表现出对陌生人的信任行为,同时考察可能对幼儿的信任产生影响的因素,包括个体认知因素(观点采择)和环境因素(负性反馈和代际传递)。研究对189名4~6岁幼儿及其家长进行多种任务的测量。实验一通过修订Evans和Krugger(2011)的信任博弈任务,考察幼儿在匿名信任博弈中的信任行为,结果发现与4岁幼儿相比,6岁幼儿对他人的信任更低;实验二考察了幼儿信任的影响因素,结果发现,幼儿在得到负性反馈结果后再次进行信任博弈任务时,他们对他人的信任比前次有所降低,6岁幼儿对他人返还数量的预期比4岁幼儿下降程度更大;6岁幼儿的信任行为(第一次给出意愿)与观点采择能力显著相关;6岁幼儿的信任水平与家长的信任水平显著相关。     

性别及控制感对中国大学生信任行为的影响*

采用实验的方法,考察性别及控制感对中国大学生信任行为的影响,探讨造成信任行为性别差异的原因。实验采用经典的信念游戏范式及其变式,通过改变决定者与分配者的决策顺序操作被试的控制感水平。实验结果表明,在低控制感条件下,男性比女性表现出更多的信任行为;通过实验操作提高个体控制感水平后,信任行为的性别差异则消失,性别和控制感对信任行为的影响具有交互作用。该结果验证了研究假设,控制感是影响信任行为性别差异的重要因素。     

The Relation Between Early Adolescents’ Trust Beliefs in Peers and Reactions to Peer Provocation: Attributions of Intention and Retaliation

The authors examined the relation between early adolescents’ trust beliefs in peers and both their attributions for, and retaliatory aggression to, peer provocation. One hundred and eight-five early adolescents (102 male) from the United Kingdom (M age = 12 years, 2 months, SD = 3 months) completed the Children's Generalized Trust Beliefs in peer subscale (K. J. Rotenberg, C. Fox, et al., 2005) and reported the intentions of, and their retaliatory aggression to, hypothetical peer provocation. A curvilinear relation was found between trust beliefs in peers and retaliatory aggression but not for attributions of intention. Early adolescents with low and those with very high trust beliefs in peers reported greater retaliatory aggression than did early adolescents with the middle range of trust beliefs. The findings supported the conclusion that early adolescents who are high trusting, as well as those are very low trusting, are at risk for psychosocial maladjustment. Support was not obtained for a hostility attribution bias interpretation of those patterns.     

组织中人际初始信任研究述评

组织中日益普遍而频繁的新工作关系提出了高初始信任的需要。信任方的信任倾向与资源状况、被信任方的群体类别与组织角色、第三方关系和组织特征可以为初始信任决策提供推断依据,降低决策风险。已形成的初始信任水平影响后期信任的发展、心理契约违背的知觉、合作意愿、工作态度、组织公民行为和绩效。文章最后指出了在中国文化背景下组织中人际初始信任领域需要进一步研究的问题     

Trust and Trustworthiness

What is it to trust someone? What is it for someone to be trustworthy? These are the two main questions that this paper addresses. There are various situations that can be described as ones of trust, but this paper considers the issue of trust between individuals. In it, I suggest that trust is distinct from reliance or cases where someone asks for something on the expectation that it will be done due to the different attitude taken by the trustor. I argue that the trustor takes Holton’s ‘participant stance’ and this distinguishes trust from reliance. I argue that trustworthiness is different from reliability and that an account of trustworthiness cannot be successful whilst ignoring the point that aligning trustworthiness with reliability removes the virtue from being trustworthy. On the question of what it is distinguishes trustworthiness from reliability, I argue that the distinction is in the opportunity for the trustee to act against the wishes of the trustor and the trustee’s consideration of the value of the trust that has been placed in them by the trustor.     

Feeling and believing: the influence of emotion on trust

The authors report results from 5 experiments that describe the influence of emotional states on trust. They found that incidental emotions significantly influence trust in unrelated settings. Happiness and gratitude--emotions with positive valence--increase trust, and anger--an emotion with negative valence--decreases trust. Specifically, they found that emotions characterized by other-person control (anger and gratitude) and weak control appraisals (happiness) influence trust significantly more than emotions characterized by personal control (pride and guilt) or situational control (sadness). These findings suggest that emotions are more likely to be misattributed when the appraisals of the emotion are consistent with the judgment task than when the appraisals of the emotion are inconsistent with the judgment task. Emotions do not influence trust when individuals are aware of the source of their emotions or when individuals are very familiar with the trustee.     

Trust as performance

It is argued that trust is a performative kind and that the evaluative normativity of trust is a special case of the evaluative normativity of performances generally. The view is shown to have advantages over competitor views, e.g., according to which good trusting is principally a matter of good believing (e.g., Hieronymi, 2008; McMyler, 2011), or good affect (e.g., Baier, 1986; Jones, 1996), or good conation (e.g., Holton, 1994). Moreover, the view can be easily extended to explain good (and bad) distrust, where the latter is understood as aimed (narrow-scoped) forbearance from trusting. The overarching framework—which assimilates the evaluative norms of trusting (and distrusting) to performance-theoretic norms—supplies us with an entirely new lens to view traditional philosophical problems about what is involved in trusting and distrusting well and badly, and thus, places our capacity to make progress on problems in this area on a new footing.     

The Role of Leadership and Trust in Creating Structural Patterns of Team Procedural Justice: A Social Network Investigation

We adopt a social network perspective to investigate the distinct structural patterns (i.e., centralization and density) of procedural justice (PJ) in teams and the antecedent factors that create them. Across 2 longitudinal field studies in which we gathered social network data from 1,008 workers on 138 teams (Study 1) in China and 672 workers on 125 teams (Study 2) in the United States, we found that differentiation in leader–member exchange relationships significantly influenced the centralization and density of PJ within a team by affecting the level of intrateam trust. Specifically, the more differentiated leader treatment team members received, the lower the level of trust within a team, which resulted in more concentrated (high centralization) and fewer (low density) social interactions among members regarding team PJ. Furthermore, differentiated leader treatment of team members was especially damaging to intrateam trust and, in turn, the structural patterns of team PJ when team members were in close proximity and highly sensitive to equity issues.     

指向具体人物对象的人际信任:跨文化比较及其认知模型

本文对指向具体人物对象的人际信任作了跨文化实证比较研究,并探讨了人际信任的认知模型。使用人际信任行为量表(ITBS)测量了中国、香港及美国三地大学生的人际信任。根据三组被试对诸如父亲、哥哥、同班同学、医生和陌生人等20个人们生活中经常能够接触的人物信任程度的高低,可将这些具体人物对象归为“亲人”,“熟人”和“陌生人”三个群体。三组被试对“亲人”群体的人际信任没有显著差异,但中国被试对其它两个人物对象群体的信任要高于美国和香港被试,而后两组被试的差别则不显著。另外,利用多元回归法在人际信任与六种认知变量间建立了模型关系,发现其中只有两个变量对模型作出主要贡献,即:(1)对由信任行为而得到得回报的期望值越高;(2)得不到回报而引致损害的严重性评估越低,则一个人作出某一信任行为的可能性就越大。被试的文化背景和社会工业化程度对人际信任认知模型没有影响。     

The effect of propensity to trust and perceptions of trustworthiness on trust behaviors in dyads

Research on trust has burgeoned in the last few decades. Despite the growing interest in trust, little is known about trusting behaviors in non-dichotomous trust games. The current study explored propensity to trust, trustworthiness, and trust behaviors in a new computer-mediated trust relevant task. We used multivariate multilevel survival analysis (MMSA) to analyze behaviors across time. Results indicated propensity to trust did not influence trust behaviors. However, trustworthiness perceptions influenced initial trust behaviors and trust behaviors influenced subsequent trustworthiness perceptions. Indeed, behaviors fully mediated the relationship of trustworthiness perceptions over time. The study demonstrated the utility of MMSA and the new trust game, Checkmate, as viable research methods and stimuli for assessing the loci of trust.