A Creation Narrative for the Psychometric Society and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Psychometrika</Emphasis>: In the Beginning There Was Paul Horst

A review is provided for the creation of the Psychometric Society in 1935, and the establishment of its journal, Psychometrika, in 1936. This document is part of the 80th anniversary celebration for Psychometrika’s founding, held during the annual meeting of the Psychometric Society in July of 2016 in Asheville, NC.     

Gray matter correlates of fluid,crystallized, and spatial intelligence: Testing the P-FIT model

The parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) nominates several areas distributed throughout the brain as relevant for intelligence. This theory was derived from previously published studies using a variety of both imaging methods and tests of cognitive ability. Here we test this theory in a new sample of young healthy adults (N = 100) using a psychometric battery tapping fluid, crystallized, and spatial intelligence factors. High resolution structural MRI scans (3T) were obtained and analyzed with Voxel-based Morphometry (VBM). The main findings are consistent with the P-FIT, supporting the view that general intelligence (g) involves multiple cortical areas throughout the brain. Key regions include the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, Broca's and Wernicke's areas, the somato-sensory association cortex, and the visual association cortex. Further, estimates of crystallized and spatial intelligence with g statistically removed, still share several brain areas with general intelligence, but also show some degree of uniqueness.     

Extended Analysis of Empirical Citations with Skinner's Verbal Behavior: 1984-2004

The present paper comments on and extends the citation analysis of verbal operant publications based on Skinner''s Verbal Behavior (1957) by Dymond, O''Hora, Whelan, and O''Donovan (2006). Variations in population parameters were evaluated for only those studies that Dymond et al. categorized as empirical. Preliminary results indicate that the majority of empirical research in the area of verbal behavior has been conducted with the younger developmentally disabled population and has focused on verbal operants from the introductory chapters of Skinner''s book. It is clear that Verbal Behavior has influenced empirical research over the past 50 years. We believe, however, that there are many underdeveloped research areas originating from Verbal Behavior that have not yet been addressed. Suggestions for extended areas of research are provided.     

“Appearance potent”? A content analysis of UK gay and straight men's magazines

With little actual appraisal, a more ‘appearance potent’ (i.e., a reverence for appearance ideals) subculture has been used to explain gay men's greater body dissatisfaction in comparison to straight men's. This study sought to assess the respective appearance potency of each subculture by a content analysis of 32 issues of the most read gay (Attitude, Gay Times) and straight men's magazines (Men's Health, FHM) in the UK. Images of men and women were coded for their physical characteristics, objectification and nudity, as were the number of appearance adverts and articles. The gay men's magazines featured more images of men that were appearance ideal, nude and sexualized than the straight men's magazines. The converse was true for the images of women and appearance adverts. Although more research is needed to understand the effect of this content on the viewer, the findings are consistent with a more appearance potent gay male subculture.     

Autonomic learning

Academic achievement was resolved into its intellectual and motivational components. IQ, personality variables, and parameters of operant and classical conditioning of autonomic nervous system controlled variables were examined in 99 black inner-city high school seniors. Six physiological variables(respiration, heart rate, finger plethysmogram, frontalis muscle potential, palmar skin conductance, and palmar skin potential) were analyzed by computer using analog-to-digital conversion and a Points of Interest (PI) program. Psychological measures were full WAIS IQ, Edwards Personality Inventory(EPI), Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire(16PF), McClelland need Achievement test(n Ach), Object Sorting test, Minnesota Counseling Inventory(MCI), Level of Aspiration Board, and Rotter—Miller Locus of Control. Achievement(Ach) was defined as the residuals of total grade point average(GPA) regressed on IQ. Each of 19 variables which discriminated significantly between high and low achievers was employed in step-wise regression analyses for GPA and Ach separately. In a regression analysis of variance of GPA, IQ=20.44%, EPI=9.08%, and physiological measures =21.37%(operant conditioning =18.70%; classical conditioning =2.67%). Combined measures of motivation(psychological and physiological) =30.45% of the variance in GPA. The entire psychological and physiological test battery, including IQ, contributed a total of 50.89% of the variance in GPA. In a regression analysis of variance in achievement, psychological measures, other than IQ(six EPI and one 16PF), =11.0% and physiological measures =30.3%. As a replication, this study demonstrated significant correlation between autonomic conditioning and school achievement.     

The Legacy of Seligman’s "Phobias and Preparedness" (1971)

Seligman’s (1971) classic article, "Phobias and Preparedness," marked a break from traditional conditioning theories of the etiology of phobias, inspiring a line of research integrating evolutionary theory with learning theory. In this article, I briefly sketch the context motivating the preparedness theory of phobias before summarizing the initial wave of laboratory conditioning experiments pioneered by Öhman and conducted by his team and by others to test predictions derived from Seligman’s theory. Finally, I review the legacy of Seligman’s article, including theoretical developments embodied in Öhman and Mineka’s fear module approach as well as alternatives for explaining “preparedness” phenomena, including the selective sensitization, expectancy, and nonassociative theories. Although Seligman himself soon moved on to other topics, his seminal article in Behavior Therapy continues to inspire research more than four decades later that has deepened our understanding of the etiology of phobias.     

Higher-order exploratory factor analysis of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales with a referred sample

The factor structure of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS; [Reynolds, C.R., & Kamphaus, R.W. (2003). Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.]) was investigated with a large (N = 1163) independent sample of referred students (ages 6-18). More rigorous factor extraction criteria (viz., Horn's parallel analysis (HPA); [Horn, J.L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179-185.], and Minimum Average Partial (MAP) analysis; [Velicer, W.F. (1976). Determining the number of components from the matrix of partial correlations. Psychometrika, 41, 321-327.]), in addition to those used in RIAS development, were investigated. Exploratory factor analyses using both orthogonal and oblique rotations and higher-order exploratory factor analyses using the Schmid and Leiman [Schmid, J., and Leiman, J.M. (1957). The development of hierarchical factor solutions. Psychometrika, 22, 53-61.] procedure were conducted. All factor extraction criteria indicated extraction of only one factor. Oblique rotations resulted in different results than orthogonal rotations, and higher-order factor analysis indicated the largest amount of variance was accounted for by the general intelligence factor. The proposed three-factor solution was not supported. Implications for the use of the RIAS with similarly referred students are discussed.     

Promotion of Sexual Health and Sexual Responsibility in Women’s Health and Men’s Health Magazines

This study analyzed the promotion of sexual health and sexual responsibility in Women’s Health and Men’s Health magazines as characterized by the Surgeon General’s Call to Action along with sexual health objectives targeted by Healthy People 2020 and sexual healthy behavior outcomes established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. This study also identified the most frequently addressed sexual health topics included in Women’s Health and Men’s Health. Two coders conducted a content analysis of a total of 599 articles from 64 issues (32 Women’s Health and 32 Men’s Health) published between January 2009 and November 2012. More than half of all articles addressing sexual health were found to promote sexual health (57 %). Promotion of sexual responsibility was rare with variables such as ensuring that pregnancy occurs only when desired, recognition and tolerance for diversity, limiting the number of sexual partners, and using birth control consistently each mentioned in <3 % of articles in this study sample. Among topics coded, improving sex life (29 %), what men like (19 %), and what women like (18 %) were the most common in Women’s Health while What women like (46 %), improving sex life (27 %), and other men’s sexual health (16 %) were the most frequent topics in Men’s Health. Among the least common topics mentioned were homosexuality (0.16 %) and HIV/AIDS (0.33 %). No articles addressed rape or dating violence.     

STM capacity for Chinese and English language materials

This paper delineates the theoretical implications of a program of research on short-term memory using Chinese characters as stimuli, and compares the findings with studies of short-term memory that use English language materials. The 14 experiments on which it is principally based, carried out in the People’s Republic of China and in the U.S.A., are reported in detail in Yu et al. (1984), W. Zhanget al. (1984), and G. Zhang and Simon (this issue). One major theoretical product of this research is an experimentally tested model that reconciles the chunking theory of STM capacity with the articulatory loop theory of Baddeley, making good quantitative predictions of capacity compatible with both. Another result, obtained by using homophones as stimuli, is a demonstration that STM is mainly acoustically encoded, but that there are an additional two or three chunks of visually or semantically encoded short-term memory available. Chunks are shown to play the same role in immediate recall and rote learning in both the Chinese language and English language stimuli; and STM capacity, measured in chunks, is essentially the same for materials in both languages.     

A.F. Losev's Radical Lingua-Philosophical Project

I identify the main underlyingcomponents of Losev's philosophy(phenomenology, Neo-Kantianism, symbolism,onomatodoxy/imjaslavie) and undertake acomparative analysis of their similarities (theprinciple of the priority of pure sense) anddistinctive features (i.e., whether logic andnatural language are accompanied by an eideticlevel of pure sense, and whether the principleof correlation or of expression is dominant).On this basis I define the pivotal concept ofLosev's radical project as ``eidetic language.''The general contours of Losev's radical projectand its neglected potential for the philosophyof language are described by means of ananalysis of the relationship between eideticlanguage and logic, dialectics, myth, naturallanguage, and exterior ``reality'' (in the worldof ``referents'').     

A relationship between harris factors and guttman's sixth lower bound to reliability

Using an approach nearly identical to one adopted by Guttman, it is established that within the framework of classical test theory the squared multiple correlation for predicting an element of a composite measure from then — 1 remaining elements is a lower-bound to the reliability of the element. The relationship existing between the reliabilities of the elements of a composite measure and their squared-multiple correlations with remaining elements is used to derive Guttman's sixth lower bound (λ ₆) to the reliability of a composite measure. It is shown that Harris factors of a correlation matrixR are associated with a set of (observable) uncorrelated latent variables having maximum coefficientsλ ₆.     

The Frequency with which a Group of Unselected College Students Experience Colored Dreaming and Colored Hearing

The principal aim of this report has been to clear the air with regard to number development theory and research. We began with a brief overview of the status of the number concept in pure mathematics and psychology. It was argued that although there are clear methological differences between pure mathematical and psychological approaches to the study of number, the two approaches are substantively complementary. Both are attempts to found the number concept on underlying psychological processes.

Three influential mathematical theories of number and three metamathematical criteria by which such theories are judged (consistency, completeness, categoricalness) then were summarized. The first theory, originally proposed by Peano (30) and von Neumann (49), postulates that the number concept may be reduced to a wholistic property of the natural numbers: viz., their inherent ordering. It was found that Peano-von Neumann's ordinal theory allows one to construct natural numbers without contradiction (consistency) and to construct all the natural numbers (completeness). However, the ordinal theory is not only a theory of number; it is a theory of all ordered progressions. The second theory, originally proposed by Russell (39, 40, 41, 42, 51, 52) and Frege (15), postulates that the number concept may be reduced to an atomistic property of the natural numbers: viz., the fact that each natural number is a class which includes all classes containing a particular number of elements. It was found that Russell-Frege's class theory does not allow one either to construct natural numbers without contradiction (inconsistency) or to construct all the natural numbers (incompleteness). The third theory, originally proposed by Piaget (31, 32), is a combination of the Peano-von Neumann and Russell-Frege theories; i.e., it founds number simultaneously on the wholistic property of order and the atomistic property of class. Piaget's theory was found to be contradictory (inconsistent) and to contain a superfluous undefined concept. A comparative analysis of the three theories revealed that although none of them is universally accepted as an ultimate theory of number, Peano-von Neumann's ordinal theory is by far the most satisfactory of the three by metamathematical criteria.

Each of the mathematical theories of number was translated into a cognitive developmental theory by substituting “developmental priority” of “mathematical priority.” The first theory postulated that children's number concepts derive from a prior understanding of the quantification of ordinal relations (ordination). The second theory postulated that children's number concepts derive from a prior understanding of the quantification of classes (cardination). The third theory postulated that children's number concepts derive from a prior understanding of both ordination and cardination. Published research which pertains to the postulates of each of these theories was reviewed (2, 8, 9, 10, 23, 33, 45, 46). Because of incomplete data analyses and poor operational definitions, it was concluded that the existing evidence does not clearly support any of the three theories.

Behavioral methods of assessing ordination, cardination, and natural number competence in children's thinking then were constructed. Care was taken to insure that each behavioral test was the most obvious counterpart of the mathematical definition of the notion that the test was designed to measure. It was argued in this regard that scrupulously precise operational definitions—as opposed to the loose operational definitions that characterize Piaget's (33) original studies of number development—are essential if we hope to decide which of the competing theories of number development is the most tenable. Two developmental studies were reported. In the first study, there were three principal findings: (a) Ordination was found to emerge in three stages (no ordering, spatial ordering, ordination). (b) Cardination was found to emerge in three stages (no correspondence, one-to-many and many-to-one correspondence, one-to-one correspondence). (c) Ordination was found to emerge long before cardination. In the second study, there were three principal findings: (a) The major findings of the first study were replicated. (b) Ordination was found to emerge prior to natural number competence. (c) Cardination was not found to emerge prior to natural number competence. It was concluded that the theory of number development which corresponds to the most satisfactory of the three mathematical theories—namely, the ordinal theory—is consistently supported by the developmental findings.

Possible explanations of the cognitive-developmental sequences reported in the two studies were considered. It was suggested that Flavell's (14) notion of item structure probably accounts for all the sequences. Flavell's notion of item structure specifies that a developmental sequence of the form X₁ → X₂ obtains between two cognitive items when the use of X₂ logically presupposes the use of X₁. It was argued in this regard that the sequences reported in the two studies each reflect logical relationships mentioned in the earlier review of mathematical number theories. Finally, the epistemological question of why such a close relationship exists between logical priorities and cognitive-developmental sequences was considered. It was concluded that there must be at least some structural isomorphism between the domains of cognition and pure mathematics.     

Intersubjectivity and Naturalism — Husserl's Fifth Cartesian Meditation Revisited

As Husserl argues in the fifth Cartesian Meditation, the similarity of my Body (Leib) with the body (Körper) of another person is the founding moment of the experience of the other. This similarity is based on the previous objectivation of my Body. Husserl continuously worried to explicate this similarity-premise and by doing so, it appeared that this objectivation already presupposes intersubjectivity. By running into this problem, the Meditation actually fulfils its program by showing that the other is co-constitutive of the world and more precisely of my existence as a worldly human being. At the same time he developed an alternative approach by identifying the original experience of the other as an expressive unity (Ausdruckseinheit) as the condition of possibility of intersubjective experience. By drawing on the relevant Forschungsmanuskripte in the volumes on Intersubjectivity and on Ideas II, it appears that the Meditation offers a naturalistic theory of intersubjectivity that results from the introduction of the reduction to primordiality. When one takes into account Husserl's analysis of the experience of an expressive unity, that is a defining characteristic of the personalistic attitude, one can clarify the derivative nature of this naturalistic approach.     

Parametric and bootstrap approaches to repeated measures designs

Recently, a nonparametric technique called bootstrapping has been recommended over the more well-known analysis of variance (ANOVA) for analyzing repeated measures data. Advocates cite as bootstrap’s advantages over ANOVA the fact that the former uses distributional information and is free of normal theory assumptions. The present study used a computer simulation to compare the two techniques calculated using data sampled from normal and nonnormal distributions. The parametric test had adequate control of Type I error rates; the nonparametric test had overly liberal Type I error rates and therefore is not recommended.     

Written object naming,spelling to dictation,and immediate copying: Different tasks,different pathways?

Politeness theory posits that speakers can use verbal probabilities (e.g., there is a chance, it is likely) to hedge bad news. So far, only indirect evidence supports that claim: From the hearer's standpoint, verbal probabilities are interpreted either as plain likelihood-communication devices or as face-management devices, resulting in different risk perceptions. The present research aims to test more directly the postulate of politeness theory by focusing on the effects of speakers' intentions on risk communication. In three experiments, participants communicated a probability by choosing an expression from a list of verbal probabilities. Results consistently showed that polite speakers communicated a different risk magnitude than informative speakers. Further findings indicate that the effect of the speakers' intention depends on the valence of the uncertain outcome. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed.     

A confirmatory structural equations analysis of the job characteristics model

K. H. Roberts and W. Glick (1981, Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 193–217) noted that research on J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham's (1976, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250–279) job characteristics model has lacked consistency along a number of dimensions, including the nature and direction of the relationships hypothesized and the variables studied. Further, no variation on the model has been tested as a whole. This study was designed with two objectives: (1) to compare competing interpretations of the job characteristics model and (2) to test the job characteristics model more comprehensively than has been done in previous research. The question of which variation on the model is most useful has important implications, given the widespread use of job characteristics theory to guide productivity and satisfaction improvement efforts. Structural equations analysis can yield information to compare competing variations of the job characteristics model, and allow assessment of each interpretation's ability to describe data. Such analyses were performed on data collected by survey from 208 white-collar government employees. Findings indicate that a single-factor model, with that factor interpretable either as common method variance or generalized affect, explains these data at least as well as any traditional variation on job characteristics theory. The results are discussed in terms of further research on job characteristics, satisfaction, and performance.     

The Role of Structural Reasoning in the Genesis of Graph Theory

The concept of quantity (Größe) plays a key role in Frege's theory of real numbers. Typically enough, he refers to this theory as ‘theory of quantity’ (‘Größenlehre’) in the second volume of his opus magnum Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (Frege 1903). In this essay, I deal, in a critical way, with Frege's treatment of the concept of quantity and his approach to analysis from the beginning of his academic career until Frege 1903. I begin with a few introductory remarks. In Section 2, I first analyze Frege's use of the term ‘source of knowledge’ (‘Erkenntnisquelle’) with particular emphasis on the logical source of knowledge. The analysis includes a brief comparison between Frege and Kant's conceptions of logic and the logical source of knowledge. In a second step, I examine Frege's theory of quantity in Rechnungsmethoden, die sich auf eine Erweiterung des Größenbegriffes gründen (Frege 1874). Section 3 contains a couple of critical observations on Frege's comments on Hankel's theory of real numbers in Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik (Frege 1884). In Section 4, I consider Frege's discussion of the concept of quantity in Frege 1903. Section 5 is devoted to Cantor's theory of irrational numbers and the critique deployed by Frege. In Section 6, I return to Frege's own constructive treatment of analysis in Frege 1903 and succinctly describe what I take to be the quintessence of his account.     

Case for Non‐Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on Rushton,Skuy, and Bons (2004)

This reply reviews the conceptual, methodological, and statistical foundations of Rushton, Skuy and Bons' article in this journal that compared Black Africans, Whites and East Indians on the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices, and concluded that the Raven's is an unbiased test. Through a technical re‐analysis of both the internal and external validity criteria for test bias using data reported in the Rushton et al. paper, we demonstrate that the Raven's Matrices test is in fact biased against Black Africans. We take issue with several additional elements of Rushton et al.'s study, including the use of non‐equivalent groups in test samples. We briefly review Rushton's racial‐realist research agenda and show that the assumption of test bias is central to advancing that agenda. Industrial/organizational and occupational psychologists should critically analyze and re‐evaluate the science employed in Rushton's racial‐realist research and also should better understand the ethical and social implications of accepting his reports of research findings on test bias and White–Black IQ differences as established scientific facts.     

Just Plain "Ought'

Is there any sense to the idea of an ``ought''that is not relative to any particularnormative framework? This ``ought'' would not bea moral, prudential, legal, aesthetic, orreligious ``ought,'' but rather an unqualified or just plain ``ought.'' Thispaper (i) argues for the existence andusefulness of just plain ``ought''; (ii) locatesthe concept of just plain ``ought'' within amajor strand in the history of ethics (namely,the perennial attempt to demonstrate thatmorality and prudence are in harmony); and(iii) challenges David Copp's recent attempt toshow that in fact there is no such thing asjust plain ``ought.'' A theory of just plain``ought'' emerges along the way.