论太虚大师对朱熹等理学家辟佛思想的回应

<正>太虚法师(1890-1947),民国时期四大高僧之一。目前学术界研究太虚大师的人间佛教思想的成果非常丰富,如欧阳镇《论太虚人间佛教儒学化的特色》主要考察太虚大师引用儒家思想建构人间佛教的特征与价值[1],张雪梅《民国太虚法师的居士佛教思想》重在考察太虚法师的居士佛教思想特征[2]。贲利《太虚大师佛学思想的世俗化探求》考察太虚大师佛学理论的"世俗化特征"。[3]这些成果从不同角度揭示太虚大师人间佛教的特色与贡献,但是他     

论民间信仰的神灵体系

在民间信仰研究中,为了达到对民间诸神的整体认识和宏观把握,有必要为其构建一个体系.本文首先梳理了学界反映神灵等级、来源、礼制地位、流行范围等属性的已有体系,分析了其利弊,然后从社会史角度、以神灵职能为依据构建了一个新的民间神体系.它包括地理环境神、人口保障神、个人命运神、群体监护神和综合神五个大类,每一大类中又有若干小类.这一体系凸显了民间诸神的职司,揭示了其在社会结构、社会生活、社会整合控制中的地位与功能.     

宋代儒佛关系的澄清与拓展——评《儒士视域中的佛教——宋代儒士佛教观研究》

自汉平帝永平年间佛教东传中土以来,以儒学为主干的中国文化与印度佛教文化之间便开始了数千年的相互激荡与相互融摄,儒佛交涉从此开始.历经了汉唐的磨砺鼓荡,佛教与中国文化的结合也日益精密.     

论信仰世俗化进程中马克思主义对宗教信仰的超越

信仰是人类一种特有的精神现象,它随社会物质生活的发展变化而变化。当人类文明进入理性与科学时代,虚幻的、神秘的宗教信仰开始出现世俗化转型。通过审视理性与上帝、科学与宗教,人们深切感到理性主义信仰在哲学、文化及现实等方面仍存在问题,开始反思世俗化信仰。马克思主义立足于人的社会性本质,发现信仰是群体化超越性的价值追求,纯粹个人化信仰毫无意义;通过对资本逻辑与价值失落的双重批判奠定了其作为群体化信仰的合法性根基;进而凭借对科学性和人文性、现实关切与终极关怀的融汇贯通,实现了对前现代神秘化宗教信仰和现代世俗化拜物教信仰的双重超越,成为人们追求世俗化信仰的新选择。     

道德信仰的两重规定及其限度

道德必须以信仰为基础 ,道德信仰既是对道德的信仰 ,又是对善的终极追求。两者合为一体 ,统一于道德信仰这一主体的道德意识之中的 ,它们从不同的角度与层面反映了人对道德的态度与意愿。这是研究道德信仰应有的理论视点。     

论施莱尔马赫两版《基督教信仰》的实质差别

《基督教信仰》是施莱尔马赫一生中所发表的最重要、最具影响力的著作。面对《基督教信仰》初版所遭受到的种种批评和指责,施莱尔马赫通过《基督教信仰》第二版的修订,做出了三个方面的重大修正——突出教义学体系自身的科学性和独立性,强调教义学语言表述的科学性与严谨性,以及加强对基督本性问题的考察和论述。正是通过这三个方面的修订,施莱尔马赫在《基督教信仰》这部著作中所要表达的思想观点变得更加清晰明了,对各种批评意见的回应也变得更有力。更为重要的是,透过《基督教信仰》第一版到第二版的变化,施莱尔马赫也最终实现了从信仰的直接告白走向思想的系统构建的根本性跨越。     

论儒学对民间神明信仰的影响——以闽台民间神明信仰为例

儒家通过人的神化和神的道德化两个方面的造神运动实现了对民间神格塑造的影响。在鬼神信仰上的宗教伦理理性的价值取向是儒学对民间信仰产生影响的思想渊源,国家机器的神道设教和知识分子推动是这一影响的现实途径。     

论一种涉佛的儒学——以皇侃《论语义疏》为中心

皇侃身处佛学风行的时代,其涉佛的思想可以提供一个管窥六朝儒学的独特形态、了解彼时经师如何巧用外来异质思想实现儒学的重新定位和自我调适的良好视角。佛学对皇侃的影响主要体现在两方面：在诠释方法上,透过经文来体察圣贤的境界,并尝试用玄理与佛理来呈现其内在世界,与玄学一同促成了更为内向化的诠释思路。在诠释内容上,不同于传统经学叙事从政教风化来理解教化,皇侃用“应机作教”的佛语勾勒夫子的人师形象,意在促成儒学由政而教的转型。     

信仰与理性的冲突与谐和——对克尔凯郭尔信仰观之合理性的一种辩护

在理性与信仰的关系问题上,认为克尔凯郭尔主张基督教信仰只关系到主观而与客观无关,其"真理是主体性"、"信仰是荒谬的"等命题是对理性之摒弃的看法是偏狭的。克氏在信仰上对主观真理的强调和对客观真理的质疑建立在承认人的罪性以及因之而人的理性遭到了破坏这一前提上,这一点并不与理性本身相冲突,而毋宁说是人的理性层次的问题;另一方面,在克氏,基督教信仰的主观性就其自身而论也必须以理性客观性为前提,因无正确的客观性作保证就没有克氏要求的那种主观性,其眼中的信仰的主观真理也就不复存在了。     

道德信仰何以可能——康德道德信仰的理性基础及其现实性重建

与宗教信仰相对立,康德试图要在主体自身理性的基础上确立起对道德的信仰.主体自身"纯粹的实践理性"是康德道德信仰的理性基础.但是,"纯粹的实践理性"存在着现代性道德困境,如果不能化解这一悖论,那么"道德"就难以成为理性存在者的普遍信仰.为此,康德试图以制度公正作为现实中的上帝来确保建立"善恶因果联系"的理性法则.因此,康德的道德信仰的理性基础包括个体的道德理性和制度的道德理性两个方面.尽管由于康德的矛盾心态和他所处的社会现实,他的政治与道德一体的实践哲学最终是不彻底的.但康德的意义无疑可以帮助我们把对道德信仰的思考从"纯粹的实践理性"导向更加理性和成熟的"实践的理性".     

On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning

Three experiments are reported that investigate the weighting attached to logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning. Substantial belief biases were observed despite controls for possible conversions of the premises. Equally substantial effects of logic were observed despite controls for two possible response biases. A consistent interaction between belief and logic was also recorded; belief bias was more marked on invalid than on valid syllogisms. In all experiments, verbal protocols were recorded and analyzed. These protocols are interpreted in some cases as providing rationalizations for prejudiced decisions and, in other cases, as reflecting a genuine process of premise to conclusion reasoning. In the latter cases, belief bias was minimal but still present. Similarly, even subjects who focus primarily on the conclusion are influenced to an extent by the logic. Thus a conflict between logic and belief is observed throughout, but at several levels of extent.     

Differences between belief and knowledge systems

Seven features which in practice seem to differentiate belief systems from knowledge systems are discussed. These are: nonconsensuality, “existence beliefs,” alternative worlds, evaluative components, episodic material, unboundedness, and variable credences. Each of these features gives rise to challenging representation problems. Progress on any of these problems within artificial intelligence would be helpful in the study of knowledge systems as well as belief systems, inasmuch as the distinction between the two types of systems is not absolute.     

Filial belief and parent-child conflict

This study examines the relation between filial belief and the frequency, origins, and solutions to parent‐child conflict using an indigenous Chinese perspective. The Dual Filial Piety model is employed to categorize the four types of filial belief: nonfilial, authoritarian, reciprocal, and absolute. Questionnaires were completed by 773 junior and senior high school students from around Taiwan for the study. Results provided support for the indigenous Chinese notion that a child's filial beliefs relate to the level of parent‐child conflict. The results go beyond this common conception to highlight that filial beliefs may have a particular role in decreasing self‐centred but not inappropriate conflict between parents and children, and that reciprocal filial beliefs may have a more important role in decreasing conflict than authoritarian filial beliefs. Clear differences were identified in the reported origins of conflict (Demands Conflict with Desire. Unreasonable Behaviour, Demand Exceeds Ability, Role Conflict, Interparental Dispute. Immoral Demands) and solutions to conflict (self‐sacrifice, compromise, refraining, ego‐centred, escape) among the four filial types. Parent demands conflicting with the child's desire was the greatest source of conflict for each of the four filial types. Nonfilial types reported significantly more conflict than absolute types for four of the six origins of conflict examined. Low incidence of conflict may explain why the filial types did not differ for the remaining two origins. Overall, the four filial types reported self‐sacrifice as their least used solution to parent‐child conflict, and nonfilials reported significantly less use of this solution than the other three filial types. Absolutes and reciprocals reported significantly more use of refraining than the other two filial types. Results of this study provide the first empirical support for the Dual Filial Piety model and constitute a foundation for continued indigenous research on parent‐child relations in Chinese culture. It is expected that an indigenous theory of parent‐child relations incorporating the Dual Filial Piety model can eventually be integrated into a global psychology.     

Chinese clients' belief systems about psychological problems in Singapore

This study explores Singaporean Chinese clients' beliefs about psychological problems by comparing their beliefs with those of non-clients and professional counsellors. These three samples were asked to indicate the extent to which they would agree with three belief models, the Chinese indigenous model, the Western psychological model, and the other model. It was found that clients and non-clients were more likely than therapists to endorse the indigenous belief model. Amongst the indigenous sub-models, Chinese medicine was the most endorsed across the three samples; and clients and non-clients endorsed Chinese medicine more than therapists did. The indigenous belief model, especially Chinese medicine was endorsed more by Buddhist and Taoist clients than Christian or non-religionist clients; and by clients holding lower educational qualifications.     

The elusive link between conflict and conflict adaptation

A core tenet of the original conflict-monitoring model is that regulation is triggered automatically when conflict is present and that the same regulation mechanism explains both trial-to-trial adaptation effects as well as effects of block-wise conflict manipulations. We present here results from two experiments using the Stroop task that show (a) that adaptation effects in the absence of response repetitions may occur only at the beginning of testing and that (b) robust block-wise effects can be found even in the absence of trial-by-trial effects. Furthermore, we show that the failure to eliminate target-to-distractor repetitions can produce artificial trial-to-trial adaptation effects. Based on the evidence of a weak link between conflict and conflict adaptation, we argue that a wider range of possible reasons for conflict adaptation effects needs to be taken into consideration.     

Logic in religious and non-religious belief systems

The paper first proposes a new definition of religion which features a novel four-layered element and which does not involve any circularity (as some definitions do); thereby, it allows to clearly distinguish the phenomenon of religion from certain other worldviews, in particular from certain political ideologies (a number of other definitions do not). Relying on the findings, the paper develops two structural conceptual models which serve to describe religious and non-religious belief systems. Further, the definition and the conceptual models allow to establish a clear criterion to distinguish pivotal structural differences between religious and non-religious belief systems. The criterion is based on the concept of two kinds of rationality: first-level and second-level rationalities. These will demonstrate to what degree religion can be a rational enterprise, and what role logic can play in it. The result is a clear-cut line in the structures of religious and certain consistent non-religious belief systems (e.g. a scientific theory).     

Degrees of belief in god: a measure of belief for use in cross culture

Belief scales with good psychometric properties are relatively rare. Several scales that claim to measure levels of belief use behavioural indicators that do not necessarily reflect belief, and others refer to specific religions and do not consider ethnic factors or cultural differences. This paper introduces a 6-item multicultural belief scale (the Degrees of Belief in God Scale), based on the results of previous exploratory factor analyses. 2124 Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Swiss, Turkish and ex-Yugoslavian subjects including Atheists, Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Moslems and Protestants contributed to the development of the new instrument. Principal component analysis (PCA) followed by varimax-standardized rotation was used to identify (first order) dimensions of belief. In order to identify the shared or common variance in all groups defined by religion and culture of origin a hierarchical analysis of oblique factors was computed for each group. The paper also reports test–retest reliability as well as face, criterion and construct validity data. The resulting Degrees of Belief in God Scale has exceptional psychometric properties and the measurements are equivalent across the sampled cultures and religions.     

The conflict between mourning and melancholia

Conflict between facing the reality of loss on the one hand, and denying it on the other, is explored in clinical material drawn from an analysis approaching termination. The intrapsychic conflict over loss was expressed as a conflict between morality and reality, and was externalized as a conflict between patient and analyst. For the patient, giving up resentment toward the analyst became tantamount to giving up the ideal object and losing omnipotence. In the course of the analysis, his complaints became less convincing, and the conflict over loss became more conscious, allowing some moves toward mourning to take place.