The Relationship Between Racial and Ethnic Identity in Black Adolescents: The Cross Racial Identity Scale and the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure

Ethnic identity and racial identity are related terms that are often used interchangeably, although the theoretical models differ. In this study, we examined the relationship between ethnic identity attitudes operationalized by Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992) scores and racial identity attitudes operationalized by Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; Vandiver et al., 2000) scores in a sample of 143 adolescents. Bivariate analyses indicated that scores on the MEIM's Ethnic Identity subscale had modest positive correlations with Afrocentricity scores of the CRIS and negative correlations with Assimilation and Self-Hatred scores. Other Group Orientation scores from the MEIM were positively related to Multicultural scores on the CRIS and negatively related to Anti-White scores. A canonical correlation yielded 2 interpretable functions labeled Black Racial/Ethnic Identification and Grounded Multiculturalism. Black Racial/Ethnic Identification was characterized by high proethnic and pro-racial scores and low scores on non-ethnic/racial subscales, and Grounded Multiculturalism was characterized by high pro-ethnic scores as well as high pro-other scores.     

Measurement invariance of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) across Bulgarian,Dutch and Greek samples

The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992) is a widely used instrument to quantify the way people think, feel, and behave regarding their ethnic origin. This instrument is commonly used to compare groups of people from different ethnic and/or cultural backgrounds. However, in order for these comparisons to be accurate, measurement invariance between groups needs to be tested and this is what has been done in the current study. First, confirmatory factor analyses were conducted separately for data sets with Bulgarian, Dutch, and Greek adolescents. Second, configural and scalar invariance were tested. Finally, comparisons between Bulgarian, Dutch, and Greek adolescents were made on their scores on MEIM.     

Ethnic group preferences and the evaluation of ethnic identity among adolescents in The Netherlands.

The relationship between the evaluation of ethnic identity and ethnic group preferences among Dutch and that among ethnic minority adolescents was examined. It was predicted that a more positive attitude toward one's own ethnic identity would be associated with a higher level of ingroup preference. This prediction was confirmed, and this led to the question of how inter-ethnic relations and a positive ethnic identity could be stimulated simultaneously. Not only the ingroup aspect of ethnic group relations was studied but also the outgroup aspect. As members of the high-status group, the Dutch subjects showed a higher level of ingroup preference, compared with ethnic minorities. Also, own-group identification and own-group-oriented patterns of preferences among the Dutch subjects were found to be accompanied by the rejection of minority groups. No such tendency was found among adolescents from ethnic minorities.     

Ethnic self-awareness as a function of ethnic group status,group composition,and ethnic identity orientation

This study found that ethnic self-awareness (i.e., the extent to which people are consciously aware of their ethnicity at any given moment) has different meanings for European Americans and Asian Americans and for Asian Americans with different ethnic identity orientations. The authors found main effects of ethnic group status and ethnic composition on ethnic self-awareness when comparing Asian Americans and European Americans. There was also an interaction effect between ethnic composition and ethnic identity orientation for Asian Americans when examining ethnic self-awareness. Findings are discussed in relation to theories that predict salience of ethnicity and to educators and practitioners who deal with ethnic minority group members.     

Language Measurement Equivalence of the Ethnic Identity Scale With Mexican American Early Adolescents

The current study considers methodological challenges in developmental research with linguistically diverse samples of young adolescents. By empirically examining the cross-language measurement equivalence of a measure assessing three components of ethnic identity development (i.e., exploration, resolution, and affirmation) among Mexican American adolescents, the study both assesses the cross-language measurement equivalence of a common measure of ethnic identity and provides an appropriate conceptual and analytical model for researchers needing to evaluate measurement scales translated into multiple languages. Participants are 678 Mexican-origin early adolescents and their mothers. Measures of exploration and resolution achieve the highest levels of equivalence across language versions. The measure of affirmation achieves high levels of equivalence. Results highlight potential ways to correct for any problems of nonequivalence across language versions of the affirmation measure. Suggestions are made for how researchers working with linguistically diverse samples can use the highlighted techniques to evaluate their own translated measures.     

Ethnic differences in endorsement of the Protestant work ethic: the role of ethnic identity and perceptions of social class

The authors examined ethnic differences in endorsement of the Protestant work ethic (PWE; M. Weber, 1905) among Black (n = 96) and White (n = 149) college students and tested whether differences in ethnic identity and perceptions of social class mediated the relationship between ethnicity and the endorsement of PWE values. Blacks were higher in levels of ethnic identity, more likely to see themselves as working or middle class, and less likely to endorse the PWE. Only perceptions of social class partially mediated the relationship between ethnicity and PWE values. The authors concluded that perception of social class is an important construct that might influence the cultural psychology of different ethnic groups. The authors recommended further research involving PWE and other cultural variables.     

Ethnic attitudes in relation to ethnic pride and ethnic differentiation.

A comparison of 4 subsamples with the Ethnic Identity Scale (developed for the present study) yielded 2 relatively independent facets of ethnic identity: ethnic pride and belonging (EP) and ethnic differentiation (ED). First, the distinction between EP and ED increased understanding of how age and immigration status affect changes in ethnic identity. In a comparison of Estonians living in Sweden with those living in Estonia, only ED was affected by emigration and contacts with other ethnic groups, although both EP and ED were positively correlated with age. Second, the distinction between EP and ED increased understanding of earlier and seemingly contradictory findings about the connection between ethnic identity and ethnic attitudes. In the present study, EP was not correlated with ethnic attitudes, but, for 2 majority groups, ED was positively correlated with negative evaluations of out-groups. The authors also discuss the role of group status and relationships with the target nation in understanding the relationship between ethnic identity and ethnic attitudes.     

Development and validation of the Stephenson Multigroup Acculturation Scale (SMAS)

This article describes the development and psychometric evaluation of the Stephenson Multigroup Acculturation Scale (SMAS). Three studies were conducted to describe its development and refinement, examine its psychometric properties with 436 participants from 5 ethnic groups, and examine the robustness of the factor structure with a new sample. Exploratory factor analyses generated a 2-factor solution: ethnic society immersion and dominant society immersion. Item refinement resulted in a 32-item version of the SMAS. Findings indicated a robust factor structure across groups. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the 2-factor model provided a close approximation to the observed data. Studies indicated high reliability and validity indexes. Findings support the role of acculturation as a mediator between ethnic group affiliation and standardized assessment results.     

Change in ethnic identity across the college transition

This article examined changes in ethnic identity as a function of college type and residential status and whether differences due to college type could be explained by involvement in extracurricular activities and college ethnic composition. Although no changes in ethnic labeling or belonging were found, there was a normative decrease in ethnic search, independent of residential status. Moreover, the decline in ethnic search was significantly greater at 2- than 4-year colleges, and this difference was mediated by higher rates of participation in extracurricular activities at 4-year colleges. Ethnic identity did not vary by college ethnic composition. There were no ethnic or generation differences in ethnic identity change; however, women were more likely to include an American term in their ethnic label than were men, over time. Averaging across time, students at 4-year colleges also had a greater preference for the American term in their ethnic labels. Findings illuminate the importance of context in shaping ethnic identity.     

Ethnic identity,ego identity,and psychological well‐being among mixed‐ethnic Arab‐European adolescents in Israel

This study explored the relationship between ethnic identity, ego identity, and psychological wellbeing among mixed‐ethnic adolescents with European mothers and Arab fathers in Israel. One hundred and twenty‐seven mixed‐ethnic adolescents (13 to 18 years) were instructed to respond to a modified version of Phinney's (1992) Multigroup ethnic identity measure (MEIM), to Bennion and Adams' (1986) ego identity measure (EOM‐EIS) and to Ryff's (1999) psychological well‐being scale. It was found that Arab and European ethnic identities, composed of ethnic behaviours, affirmation and belonging, and achievement of a sense of oneself as part of an ethnic group, were significantly positively correlated with participants' psychological well‐being. Findings revealed also that the ego identity statuses Achievement and Moratorium were associated with higher levels of psychological well‐being, while the statuses Foreclosure and Diffusion were associated with lower levels of well‐being. Arab and European ethnic identities and ego identity were found to be formed independently among the participants.     

Ethnic Identity in Jewish Families

Forty-eight Jewish families living in Central New York were interviewed about the development of their ethnic identity. Within each family, parents and children were asked about how they developed their ethnic identity to explore qualitatively how Jewish identity shapes and influences family dynamics. The semi-structured family interviews were coded using a constant comparison methodology. Seven qualitative categories emerged (gendered decisions, negotiating continuity, family of origin, survivors, active learning, traditions, and cultural religion). Jewish identity formation in families and the implications for clinical practice are explored.     

Ethnic Identity and Prosocial Attitudes

In this study, I examined the relationships between ethnic identity, social support within one's own group, activity with one's own group, and readiness to cooperate with people of another group. The hypothesis that there will be a stronger link between ethnic identity and prosocial activity in a minority group was tested using a questionnaire collected from 60 Byelorussians and 62 Poles living in the same villages of eastern Poland. The analyses showed that Byelorussians had lower ethnic identity and social support than Poles but higher readiness to cooperate with Poles than the reverse. For the Byelorussians, the correlational analysis revealed significant coefficients between ethnic identity and social support, between ethnic identity, social support, and prosocial activity, and between social support and readiness to cooperate, whereas the relationships among these variables were not significant in the Polish group. On a cognitive level, therefore, the members of the dominant group identified more with the nation and country than the members of a minority, whose ethnic identity was more salient in social attitudes and ingroup and outgroup activities.     

Ego Identity,Ethnic Identity,and the Psychosocial Well-Being of Ethnic Minority and Majority College Students

Although empirical studies have linked a consolidated ego identity to positive psychosocial outcomes for White middle-class adolescents, there is little research documenting this relationship for ethnic minority youth. This study investigated the relationships among ego identity, ethnic identity, and psychosocial functioning, and compared these relationships for ethnic minority and majority college students. The findings revealed that students with an achieved ego identity status had a more positive sense of ethnic identity than did students with a diffused ego identity. Findings also revealed that ethnic minority students reported stronger ethnic identification than did White students and that a stronger sense of ethnic identity was associated with more positive psychosocial outcomes among ethnic minority students, but not among White students. Implications for future research are discussed.     

The Development of the Universal Ethnic Identity Scale (UEIS) for use in an Australian context

The aim of the present research was to develop a measure that assessed the level of ethnic identification of adults from diverse ethnic backgrounds, as well as individuals' level of ethnic identification with a host culture following migration. In the first study, an ethnically diverse sample of 275 people (138 males and 137 females) responded to a range of new items, as well as items drawn from related scales. Factor analysis revealed three dimensions of ethnic identity that were labelled, “Pride in Ethnic Background and Language,”“Liking for Traditional and Social Activities of my Ethnic Group,” and “Sense of Belonging to This (host) Country.” This factor structure was evaluated in a second study with 1,007 (552 males, 455 females) adults from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. A two‐factor structure provided the most parsimonious fit to the data but further investigation of the factor structure within ethnically diverse samples was recommended. The results are discussed in relation to theories of social identity as well as research on ethnic identification and adaptation.     

An Exercise in Ethnic Identity Awareness

Ethnic identity encompasses self‐concept and self‐identification, a sense of belonging, and positive and negative attitudes toward one's ethnic group. The author describes an exercise that introduces and facilitates awareness of the concept of ethnic identity by illustrating, with real‐life experiences and examples, the multidimensionality of ethnic identity. La identidad Etnica abarca el concepto del ser y la identificación del ser, es un sentido de pertenencia, y de las actitudes positivas y negativas hacia el grupo étnico de cada uno. El autor describe un ejercicio que introduce y facilita el conocimiento del concepto de la identidad étnica ilustrando su multidimensionalidad con el uso de ejemplos y experiencias de vida diaria.     

Latino Religious Affiliation and Ethnic Identity

Despite the pervasiveness of Catholicism among Latinos, studies reveal an increasing shift toward Protestantism. Examining the relationship between religion and ethnicity, we explore homeland language use as a core ethnic marker using a survey from the Pew Hispanic Center. Results reveal that Catholic Latinos are significantly more likely to use Spanish at home, even after controlling for other key variables. In response, we posit that Latino Catholicism and Protestantism entail significantly different religiosities in both home and host countries that impact Latino ethnic identification and its markers such as language use. Catholicism displays a higher level of inculturation in the sending country and greater overt institutional acceptance of ethnic culture in host countries. Protestantism in Latin America breaks with localized religiosity and traditions, and U.S. Protestant congregations may de‐emphasize ethnic culture in their theologies and worship. Hence, Latino Catholicism acts as a bridge to homelands and reinforces ethnic salience, thereby supporting continued Spanish use at home. In contrast, Protestants embrace a reorienting religiosity that often presides over ethnic identification, decreasing the salience of homeland cultural markers.     

Native and alien. On ethnic identity]

Freud's theory of the antagonism between family and culture provides the point of departure for this study, which sets out to rehabilitate the concepts "ethnic" and "ethnic identity". The family represents the locus of established tradition and familiar ritual and seeks to make each new generation identify with "us and ours". Culture, by contrast, is dependent on contact and confrontation with things alien and foreign. Between these extremes and the potential dangers specific to each of them, ethnicity--which is neither biological nor cultural--represents a mediating factor. In adolescence, a phase of dis- and re-orientation, the individual needs to draw upon his ethnic identity to reconcile the disturbing contradiction between familial and cultural claims, between the native and the alien.     

School track and ethnic classroom composition relate to the mainstream identity of adolescents with immigrant background in Germany,but not their ethnic identity

Although developing a cultural identity is a core task for adolescents from immigrant families and the school is a highly important context in adolescence, to date, few studies have examined whether adolescents with particular cultural identities cluster in certain school contexts. Using data from a representative German sample including 7702 secondary school students of immigrant background from 1643 classrooms, we examined how the attended school track and four aspects of ethnic classroom composition relate to adolescents' cultural identity (i.e., their ethnic identity and mainstream identity). Two-level structural equation models indicated that students' ethnic identity was not systematically associated with the attended school track and the ethnic composition of the classroom. However, attending the academic school track, a classroom with a low proportion of classmates with immigrant background and frequently using German with classmates related positively to mainstream identity. Ethnic diversity and proportion of co-ethnics in class did not relate to mainstream identification. Our findings suggest that the ethnic identity of adolescents with an immigrant background in Germany is largely independent from the different socialisation contexts related to school tracks and the ethnic classroom composition. Yet, students' with a strong mainstream identity cluster in certain school contexts.     

Ethnic Identity Development and Urban Haitian Adolescents

This experimental study describes the effect of a preventive, psychoeducational, counselor intervention on the ethnic identity development of urban Haitian adolescents. Significant differences were found for gender but not between the control and experimental groups. Boys scored significantly lower (p < .05) than girls on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. Recommendations are made regarding school as a frontier for the enhancement of healthy minority adolescent development.