Psychometric Properties of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales in an Undergraduate Sample: Classical Test Theory,Item Response Theory,and Differential Item Functioning

The Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales are widely used for assessing schizotypy in nonclinical and clinical samples. However, they were developed using classical test theory (CTT) and have not had their psychometric properties examined with more sophisticated measurement models. The present study employed item response theory (IRT) as well as traditional CTT to examine psychometric properties of four of the schizotypy scales on the item and scale level, using a large sample of undergraduate students (n = 6,137). In addition, we investigated differential item functioning (DIF) for sex and ethnicity. The analyses revealed many strengths of the four scales, but some items had low discrimination values and many items had high DIF. The results offer useful guidance for applied users and for future development of these scales.     

Cross-country gender DIF in PISA science literacy items

This study investigated gender based differential item functioning (DIF) in science literacy items included in the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012. Prior research has suggested presence of such DIF in large scale surveys. Our study extends the empirical literature by examining gender based DIF differences at the country level in order to gain a better overall picture of how cultural and national differences affect occurrence of uniform and nonuniform DIF. Our statistical results indicate existence of widespread gender based DIF in PISA with estimates of percentage of potentially biased items ranging between 2 and 44% (M = 16, SD = 9.9). Our reliance on nationally representative country samples allow these findings to have wide applicability.     

Comparing the adaptabilities of Brazilian adolescent students and adult workers

Many studies have verified the validity of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale in diverse samples, both adolescents and adults. However, which abilities are more typical of each group remains unknown. This study investigated the CAAS factorial structure with Brazilian adolescents, to verify differences between adolescents and adults and to explore the occurrence of differential item functioning analysis (DIF), by considering these two groups as independent variables. The two Brazilian samples were composed by adolescents (n = 272) and by adult workers (n = 404). Results confirmed the expected factorial structure in the adolescents sample and that adults scored higher on all CAAS factors. DIF analysis identified more items favored adults, as expected, but there was coherence in item content which favored each group. Nevertheless, there is no psychometric evidence supporting the need for different forms of CAAS for each group. Results are discussed by taking into account the practical implications of the findings.     

Measurement Equivalence Across Racial/Ethnic Groups of the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire for Childhood Depression

As research continues to document differences in the prevalence of mental health problems such as depression across racial/ethnic groups, the issue of measurement equivalence becomes increasingly important to address. The Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ) is a widely used screening tool for child and adolescent depression. This study applied a differential item functioning (DIF) framework to data from a sample of 6th and 8th grade students in the Seattle Public School District (N = 3,593) to investigate the measurement equivalence of the MFQ. Several items in the MFQ were found to have DIF, but this DIF was associated with negligible individual- or group-level impact. These results suggest that differences in MFQ scores across groups are unlikely to be caused by measurement non-equivalence.     

The Nature of Executive Function (EF) Deficits in Daily Life Activities in Adults with ADHD and Their Relationship to Performance on EF Tests

Although attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is believed to impair EF, research using EF tests shows such deficits exist in only a minority of those with ADHD. This study hypothesized that this disparity is largely due to the low ecological validity of these EF tests. A 91-item rating scale of EF was constructed based on EF theories and found to represent 5 underlying dimensions: Self-Management to Time, Self-Organization/Problem-Solving, Self-Discipline, Self-Motivation, and Self-Activation/Concentration. Three groups were compared on these scales: Adults with ADHD (N = 146), Clinical control adults not diagnosed with ADHD (N = 97), and a Community control group (N = 109). The ADHD group had more severe EF ratings than did the Clinical group and Community control groups on all 5 scales using both self and other-reported versions. Relationships between the EF scales and tests were low and mostly not significant. Most ADHD adults were clinically impaired on the EF ratings but only a small minority were so on the tests. The EF ratings were more highly associated with measures of deviant behavior (antisocial acts, crime diversity, negative driving outcomes) than the EF tests, most of which were unrelated to such behavior. These results agree with previous research showing that EF tests are largely unrelated to EF ratings and that EF ratings are more strongly associated with impairment in major life activities, in this case deviant or antisocial behavior. Contrary to earlier conclusions based on EF tests, adult ADHD involves substantial problems in EF in daily life.     

Borderline Personality Traits are Associated with Poor Clinical and Psychosocial Functioning in Delinquent Boys

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is positively associated with antisocial behavior in adolescent boys and might increase clinical and social problems. Delinquent boys (most with multiple felony adjudications; n = 239) in a residential facility who were high in number of BPD traits (assessed via the Borderline Tendency scale of the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory) were compared to 1,197 control offenders in the same facility while controlling for antisocial PD traits. As expected, offenders high in BPD traits had more suicidal behavior and psychopathology features and worse peer and family relations than control offenders and were higher in rates of childhood sexual and physical abuse than controls. Groups did not differ in criminal history. Results suggest that BPD traits are associated with significant problems in functioning and these traits should be identified to help curb associated problems.     

Construct Validity of ADHD-IN,ADHD-HI,ODD toward Adults,Academic and Social Competence Dimensions with Teacher Ratings of Thai Adolescents: Additional Validity for the Child and Adolescent Disruptive Behavior Inventory

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the construct validity of an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-inattention, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-hyperactivity/impulsivity, oppositional defiant disorder toward adults, academic and social competence factor model with teacher ratings of Thai adolescents (n = 872) with the Child and Adolescent Disruptive Behavior Inventory. The five-factor model resulted in an adequate fit in an absolute sense (i.e., CFI = .960; TLI = .985; RMSEA = .065; and WRMR = .883). All the items had significant and substantial loadings on their respective factors (i.e., > .78) with the five-factors showing discriminant validity. The five-factor model also resulted in similar results for boys and girls separately as well as younger and older adolescents. The current findings with the teacher version of the measure in conjunction with earlier research with mothers’ and fathers’ ratings of Brazilian, Thai, and American children (Burns et al., Psychological Assessment, 20, 121-130, 2008) and Thai adolescents (Burns et al., Psychological Assessment, 21, 635-641, 2009) provide increasing support for the construct validity of Child and Adolescent Disruptive Behavior Inventory within multiple cultures. Procedures are also outlined to improve the content validity as well as test the construct validity of forthcoming parent and teacher DSM-V ADHD/ODD rating scales.     

Face Emotion Processing in Depressed Children and Adolescents with and without Comorbid Conduct Disorder

Studies of adults with depression point to characteristic neurocognitive deficits, including differences in processing facial expressions. Few studies have examined face processing in juvenile depression, or taken account of other comorbid disorders. Three groups were compared: depressed children and adolescents with conduct disorder (n = 23), depressed children and adolescents without conduct disorder (n = 29) and children and adolescents without disorder (n = 37). A novel face emotion processing experiment presented faces with ‘happy’, ‘sad’, ‘angry’, or ‘fearful’ expressions of varying emotional intensity using morphed stimuli. Those with depression showed no overall or specific deficits in facial expression recognition accuracy. Instead, they showed biases affecting processing of low-intensity expressions, more often perceiving these as sad. In contrast, non-depressed controls more often misperceived low intensity negative emotions as happy. There were no differences between depressed children and adolescents with and without conduct disorder, or between children with comorbid depression/conduct disorder and controls. Face emotion processing biases rather than deficits appear to distinguish depressed from non-depressed children and adolescents.     

Item–trait association, scale multidimensionality, and differential item functioning identification in personality assessment

This report documents relationships between differential item functioning (DIF) identification and: (1) item–trait association, and (2) scale multidimensionality in personality assessment. Applying [Zumbo, B. D. (1999). A handbook on the theory and methods of differential item functioning (DIF): Logistic regression modeling as a unitary framework for binary and Likert-type (ordinal) item scores. Ottawa, ON: Directorate of Human Resources Research and Evaluation, Department of National Defense.] logistic regression model, DIF effect size is found to become increasingly inflated as investigated item associations with trait scores decrease. Similar patterns were noted for the influence of scale multidimensionality on DIF identification. Individuals who investigate DIF in personality assessment applications are provided with estimates regarding the impact of the magnitude of item and trait association and scale multidimensionality on DIF occurrence and effect size. The results emphasize the importance of excluding investigated items in focal trait identification prior to conducting DIF analyses and reporting item and scale psychometric properties in DIF reports.     

Executive Functioning Characteristics Associated with ADHD Comorbidity in Adolescents with Disruptive Behavior Disorders

The nature of executive dysfunction in youth with disruptive behavior disorders (DBD) remains unclear, despite extensive research in samples of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). To determine the relationship between DBD, ADHD, and executive function deficits in aggressive teens, adolescents with DBD and comorbid ADHD (DBD + ADHD; n = 25), DBD without ADHD (DBD-ADHD; n = 23), and healthy controls (HC; n = 25) were compared on neurocognitive tests and questionnaires measuring executive functioning. Teens with DBD + ADHD performed worse on both neurocognitive and questionnaire measures of executive function than the DBD-ADHD and HC groups. Results suggest that subgroups of DBD may exist depending on the presence or absence of comorbid ADHD, which may have implications for the selection and efficacy of treatment strategies.     

Brief assessment of schizotypy: Developing short forms of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales

The Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales—the Perceptual Aberration, Magical Ideation, Physical Anhedonia, and Revised Social Anhedonia Scales—have been used extensively since their development in the 1970s and 1980s. Based on psychometric analyses using item response theory, the present work presents 15-item short forms of each scale. In addition to being briefer, the short forms omit items with high differential item functioning. Based on data from a sample of young adults (n = 1144), the short forms have strong internal consistency, and they mirror effects found for the longer scales. They thus appear to be a good option for researchers interested in the brief assessment of schizotypic traits. The items are listed in an Appendix A.     

The 10-Item Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children, Child and Parent Shortened Versions: Application of Item Response Theory for More Efficient Assessment

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C/P; child and parent versions) yield positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) scales that are clinically useful for identifying youth with anxiety and mood problems. Despite the advantages that item response theory (IRT) offers relative to classical test theory with respect to shortening test instruments, no studies to date have applied IRT methodology to the PANAS-C/P scales. In the present study, we thus applied IRT methodology using a school-based development sample (child sample: N = 799; parent sample: N = 553) and developed a shortened 5-item PA scale (joyful, cheerful, happy, lively, proud) and a 5-item NA scale (miserable, mad, afraid, scared, sad) for the sake of simultaneously increasing the assessment efficiency of the PANAS-C/P scales while improving the psychometric properties of the scales. The reduced PA and NA child scales classified relevant diagnostic groups in a separate clinic-referred validation sample (N = 662) just as well as the original PANAS-C child scales and may be used to help identify youth with internalizing disorders in need of mental health services.     

运用均数与协方差结构模型侦查项目功能差异

阐释了运用多组均数与协方差结构(MACS)模型侦查多级反应项目的一致性与非一致性项目功能差异(DIF)的原理与程序, 以道德自我概念量表DIF的侦查进行示例, 并对该方法进行了评价。与项目反应理论比照, MACS采用系统的、迭代的方式利用修正指数来侦查DIF, 并提供多个拟合指数协同评价模型拟合;与标准验证性因素分析相较, MACS不仅能侦查非一致性DIF, 而且能侦查一致性DIF。运用MACS侦查DIF是一种值得推荐的方法。     

Affective Functioning Among Early Adolescents at High and Low Familial Risk for Depression and Their Mothers: A Focus on Individual and Transactional Processes across Contexts

This study aimed to characterize affective functioning in families of youth at high familial risk for depression, with particular attention to features of affective functioning that appear to be critical to adaptive functioning but have been underrepresented in prior research including: positive and negative affect across multiple contexts, individual and transactional processes, and affective flexibility. Interactions among early adolescents (ages 9–14) and their mothers were coded for affective behaviors across both positive and negative contexts. Primary analyses compared never-depressed youth at high (n = 44) and low (n = 57) familial risk for depression. The high risk group showed a relatively consistent pattern for low positive affect across negative and positive contexts at both the individual and transactional level. In contrast to prior studies focusing on negative contexts that did not support disruptions in negative affect among high risk youth, the data from this study suggest variability by context (i.e. increased negativity in a positive, but not negative, context), and individual vs. transactional processes (e.g., negative escalation). Findings are discussed in concert with attention to affect flexibility, contextual and transactional factors.     

Modifying Threat-related Interpretive Bias in Adolescents

Socially anxious feelings sharply increase during adolescence and such feelings have been associated with interpretive biases. Studies in adults have shown that interpretive biases can be modified using Cognitive Bias Modification procedures (CBM-I) and subsequent effects on anxiety have been observed. The current study was designed to examine whether the CBM-I procedure has similar effects in adolescents. Unselected adolescents were randomly allocated to either a positive interpretation training (n = 88) or a placebo-control condition (n = 82). Results revealed that the training was successful in modifying interpretations and effects generalized to a new task. The interpretive bias effects were most pronounced in individuals with a threat-related interpretive bias at pre-test. No effects on state anxiety were observed. The current findings are promising with regard to applying bias modification procedures to adolescents, while further research is warranted regarding emotional effects.     

Internal Consistency and Test-Retest Stability of the Geriatric Depression Scale-Short Form in African American Older Adults

The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) is one of the most widely used self-rated mood questionnaires for older adults. It is highly correlated with clinical diagnoses of depression and has demonstrated validity across different patient populations. However, the reliability of the GDS among African American older adults remains to be firmly established. In a baseline sample of 401 African American adults age 51 and over, the GDS-15 item short form demonstrates good internal consistency (KR20 = .71). Stability over a 15-month interval in a retest sample of 51 adults is deemed adequate (r = .68). These findings support the use of the GDS-15 item short form as a reliable mood questionnaire among African American older adults.     

Further Evidence of the Reliability and Validity of the Multidimensional Anxiety

The psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) were examined in adolescent psychiatric inpatient samples. In Study 1 (n = 287), confirmatory factor analyses provided satisfactory fit for the four-factor (comparative fit index; CFI = 0.856) and higher-order (CFI = 0.854) solutions. Using parcels as items, the fit of the four-factor model was improved substantially (CFI = 0.935). Next, in the bifactor analyses, support was attained for a model that included a general factor and four domain specific subfactors. In Study 2 (n = 195 inpatient youths), the MASC showed good scale reliability and concurrent validity. Results of the receiver operating characteristic curve and binary logistic regression analyses provided adequate evidence for discriminative validity. In Study 3 (n = 40), test–retest reliability of scores on the MASC-10 scale over a 3-week period was adequate (r _tt = 0.83, p < 0.001) for children ages 8 to 11 years.     

Personality Characteristics Associated with Persistent ADHD in Late Adolescence

This study focused on the personality characteristics associated with Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a longitudinal sample of youth, with a particular focus on differences between those with and without persisting ADHD symptoms. Participants with ADHD (n = 90) were initially evaluated when they were 7–11 years old, and re-assessed at 16–22 years of age. Matched control subjects (n = 80) were recruited at the time of the follow-up evaluation. At follow-up, the Kiddie-SADS-PL, a semi-structured psychiatric interview, and the NEO-PI, a self-report personality inventory, were administered. Data were analyzed using multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA). Results indicate that childhood ADHD is associated with lower scores on the NEO Conscientiousness subscale in adolescents/young adults—irrespective of the degree of ADHD persistence. In contrast, ratings of Neuroticism and Agreeableness appear to be more closely linked to adolescent status; those with persisting symptoms only exhibited increased Neuroticism and decreased Agreeableness. These results suggest that ADHD, and the degree to which symptoms persist into adolescence, may be closely linked to personality structure.     

Social Cognition and Interpersonal Impairment in Young Adolescents with ADHD

The purpose of this study is twofold. First, it aims to examine whether the impairment in peer functioning and social-cognitive deficits (i.e., hostile attribution bias, social comprehension, social problem-solving) found in elementary school aged children with ADHD also occur in adolescence. Second, it aims to provide evidence for a predictive relationship between these social-cognitive deficits and an adolescent’s functional impairment in the social domain. To address these aims, several social-cognitive tasks were administered to a small sample of young adolescents with ADHD (N = 27) and a comparison sample without an ADHD diagnosis (N = 18). Parent report of functional impairment and peer sociometric data were also gathered. Comparisons of both parent and peer report of adolescent social functioning suggest that individuals with ADHD continue to experience difficulties with peers into the adolescent years and data from the social-cognitive tasks show evidence of social comprehension and problem-solving deficits. Further analyses indicated a significant link between functional impairment and social cognition. Findings herein are discussed in the context of both the developmental changes that arise during adolescence and consideration of the importance of social cognition for understanding the impaired social functioning experienced by adolescents with ADHD.     

Differential item functioning in an international 360-degree assessment: Evidence of gender stereotype,environmental complexity,and organizational contingency

This research used logistic regression to model item responses from a popular 360-degree-for-development survey used in a leadership development programme given to middle and upper level European managers in Brussels. The survey contained 106 items on 16 scales. The model used gender of ratee and rater group to identify items that exhibited differential item functioning (DIF). The rater groups were self, boss, peer, and direct report. The sample consisted of 356 survey families where a survey family consisted of a matched set of four surveys: one self, one boss, one peer, and one direct report. The sample contained 88% male and 12% female raters. The sample contained 1424 total surveys. The procedure for flagging items exhibiting differential functioning used effect size computed from Wald chi-square statistics rather than statistical significance, resulting in fewer flagged items. One item exhibited rating anomalies due to the gender of the ratee; 55 items exhibited DIF attributable to rater group. The apparent effect of the DIF was small with each item. An examination of the maximum likelihood parameter estimates suggested the rater group DIF was the result of either hierarchical complexity or organizational contingency. The DIF due to gender conformed to prior expectations of gender-related stereotypical interpretations. This research further suggested that DIF due to environmental complexity or organizational contingency could be a naturally occurring phenomenon in some 360-degree assessment, and that the interpretation of some 360-degree feedback could need to include the potential for such DIF to exist.